During the last decade of the Edwardian era, profound social and cultural changes were taking place. Essentially, traditional agricultural societies based on feudal modes of governance were being superseded by industrial, urban-centred societies. Historians call this process “modernity.” Modernity involves the industrialisation of the workforce, the mass-production of goods-essential elements of early capitalism, the economic […]

All the protaganists of World War One fought to gain national security and independent territories, based on religious and ethnic integrity. But the political fault lines of the pre-war years continued into the post-war years, leading ultimately and inevitably to the Second World War. The Great War saw the sudden implosion of four empires; The […]

Several recent articles for this site have focussed on the current situation in Ukraine. For a final piece, it may be interesting and relevant to tell the story of one minority, non-Slavic group of people, who occupy the northern part of the Black Sea region of the Crimean peninsula. In areas of unrest such as […]

The classical model of how economic decisions are made is based on the assumption that we act rationally and know what is in our best interests, seeking to maximise our own welfare. Is this model truly applicable to modern society, though? The “iron laws” of supply and demand state that as demand rises, so prices […]

If asked what they did for their country during the Great War, many a tabloid hack of the time could have replied, perhaps with some pride, that they lied. Then, as now, propaganda was an important tool in a time of conflict. But some nations used it better than others. To start with, Britain, France […]

The end of the Cold War saw Russia’s prestige plummet. It opened a yawning gap in her western defences, where routes into the heartland pass through Poland, Lithuania and Romania. Latvia is only a few kilometres away from St. Petersburg, and Russia still harbours memories the Second World War. Further south, Russia’s relations with the […]

Why, and how, did the soldiers of the Great War fight and endure the privations of trench life? Combatants of all nations endured the death of friends, mutilation, blindness, terrible noise, extreme fear after artillery bombardment, mud, rain and cold. Together with these things came lice, rats, illness and depression. All for poor pay, too. […]

Vladimir Putin built his career in the KGB, working with the East German Stasi. Since 1991 he has held most of the high offices of the Russian state, including a long spell serving under Boris Yeltsin. During his rise to power he experienced the deep humiliation of the collaps of the communist system which accompanied […]

As far as British prisoners were concerned, the German authorities adhered to the principles of The Geneva Convention, treating prisoners of war and interned personnel in a reasonable and civilised manner. The story of Ruhleben, 6 miles to the west of Berlin, is perhaps typical of at least one camp for British prisoners of war. […]

“The Night Wolves” of Russia are muscular, bearded men with beer bellies and tattoos, usually astride Harley-Davidson motorcycles. It is not an image with which a serious political leader might wish to associate themselves with, one would have imagined. However, the aforementioned group are indeed now a familiar part of President Vladimir Putin’s PR antics. […]