Passover

What Is Passover?

Passover is coming up at the end of the month. But what exactly is it and how is it celebrated?

Also known as Pesach in Hebrew, Passover is a Jewish festival that marks the moment when Moses led the Jewish people to freedom after hundreds of years of enslavement under the Egyptians. The festival of Passover, which typically lasts eight days (or seven for those who live in Israel), has been celebrated since around 1300 BC and always begins on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan, though this date is subject to change each year within the Gregorian calendar. This year, Passover will begin on Monday the 22nd April and end on the 30th.

Seder

There are many traditional elements to the celebration which are typically observed during Passover. One of the most important of these is Seder. Seder is a ceremonial meal  (pictured, when fully set out) which is usually held on the first two nights of Passover. The meal typically includes a reading of the Haggadah, a text which recounts the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt, along with prayers and blessings and questions from children about Passover. A number of symbolic foods are included during the meal, the elements of which make up the Seder Plate. This includes Maror: bitter herbs which represent the harshness of slavery; Charoset: a sweet mixture which represents the bricks and mortar that the Jews would have used to build the pyramids; Karpas: vegetables, often dipped in salt water, which represents the hard work of the enslaved Jews; Zeroah: a roasted lamb bone to represent the sacrificial lamb offered in the Temple of Jerusalem; and Beitzah: a hard-boiled egg which was a typical offering brought to the Temple. All of this is accompanied by matzah (a cracker-like form of unleavened bread). Matzah is a significant element throughout Passover as many Jews refrain from eating typical bread products which contain grains that have come into contact with water and been allowed to ferment and rise. These products are also known as chametz and the removal of chametz forms another traditional part of Passover, with many households undertaking a thorough cleaning of their home to remove any traces of chametz. In ancient times, Passover also involved the sacrificing of a lamb which was then eaten as part of the Seder meal. These sacrifices don’t occur today, but the sacrificial lamb remains an important symbol of Passover.

To observe Passover, some households will refrain from work during the first two and final two days of the festival, and some of the more dedicated observers may avoid driving, using electricity and spending money. The seven or eight days of Passover are a time for celebration and, in addition to the Seder meal, it is a time where Jewish people come together with family and friends to eat, drink, share stories and enjoy music. Passover presents a key opportunity for families to talk about Judaism with their children, helping to ignite and maintain interest in Jewish culture and faith whilst ensuring that the history of the Jewish people is not forgotten.

For more information about Passover, visit Chabad.org: What Is Passover (Pesach)?

 

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A Cathedral For Christmas

St Paul’s Cathedral is one of the UK’s most iconic buildings. The present-day cathedral was consecrated on the 2nd of December 1697, and declared officially complete on Christmas day 1711, but in fact there has been a religious building on the site since around 604 CE, and so the cathedral has born witness to a long and rather interesting history. Let’s explore some of the numerous events it has housed over the centuries.

Marriages At St Paul’s

St Paul’s hosts only a very small number of weddings each year and, as it is not a parish church, there are specific conditions which must be met before one can take place at the cathedral. The cathedral will only marry members of the Order of the British Empire, the Order of St Michael and St George, the Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor, or the Cathedral Community (which includes staff and volunteers). The children of any of the above may also be married at St Paul’s. All wedding applications must go through the Archbishop of Canterbury. There have been two particularly notable weddings hosted by St Paul’s. The first was the wedding of Prince Arther, the eldest son of Henry VII, to Catherine of Aragon in 1501. Catherine would later and more perhaps more famously become Henry VIII’s first wife after Arthur died. The second was the marriage of then Prince Charles to Lady Diana Spencer in 1981.

Funerals And Burials

St Paul’s has hosted three state funerals. The first was for Admiral Horatio Nelson who was killed at the battle of Trafalgar on the 21st October 1805. Though the battle had led to his death, Nelson had won what was a crucial naval engagement with France, and subsequently became a national hero. His body was preserved in a barrel of rum as it was transported to London for his funeral on the 9th January 1806. Afterwards, Nelson was buried in the Cathedral Crypt.

Another Napoleonic War hero, Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, was also given a state funeral at St Paul’s after his death in 1852. An estimated 1.5 million people gathered to watch the funeral procession from Chelsea Hospital to St Paul’s, and around 15,000 people congregated inside the cathedral for the funeral. He too is buried in the Crypt.

The most recent state funeral to have been held at St Paul’s was that of Sir Winston Churchill in 1965. Whilst Churchill is buried in Oxfordshire, St Paul’s hosted a huge funeral ceremony which was attended by political leaders and royalty from across the globe. As well as these three notable state funerals, the Cathedral Crypt is the burial site of a number of important public figures including King Aethelred the Unready, Scottish microbiologist Alexander Fleming, artist Joseph Turner, and Sir Christopher Wren, the architect who designed the present-day cathedral.

Other Key Events

The Cathedral has been the venue for a number of Royal Jubilee services, the being for Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, held there in 1897. Since then, St Paul’s has celebrated the Silver Jubilee of King George V in 1935 and the Silver, Golden, Diamond and Platinum Jubilees of Queen Elizabeth II in 1977, 2002, 2012 and 2022 respectively.

As well as these more celebratory and memorial events, it has also hosted a number of grim executions, most notably the hanging, in 1606, of five men who had conspired to blow up Parliament as part of the Gunpowder Plot.

One of the more recent national events hosted by St Paul’s was the National Memorial Service for the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire in west London in 2017. More than 1500 people attended the event to pay tribute to the 72 people who died.

To learn more about the history of this iconic building and the numerous events that took place here visit St Paul’s official website or The Founding of St.Paul’s Cathedral web page at The History of London website.

Advent And Its Deeper Spirit

Advent is a period associated by many with the daily ritual of opening a chocolate-filled calendar door. However, a deeper, more profound spirit exists behind this tradition.

The word Advent is derived from the Latin word “adventus“, meaning “coming” or “arrival,” and is a period of waiting and preparation for the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. Beyond the visceral excitement of counting down the days with chocolate treats, office parties, shopping, and light shows, it is a prompt for us to reflect on the spiritual significance of this season.

Despite its more secular contemporary nature, the Advent calendar, a popular and cherished tradition, serves as a tangible reminder of the passing days leading up to Christmas. However, religious-themed calendars that tell the nativity story day by day, remain popular and offer a clearer connection with the original spirit of the period.

Calendar, Nativity, Solstice

Advent can be a gift allowing us time to embrace the nativity story and take joy in the ordinary moments of our lives. Beyond the material gifts exchanged during the festive season, the true essence of it lies in the gift of time which can be spent in reflection, in prayer, (if you are religious), in nature, and in connection with others.

The weekly or daily lighting of Advent candles, (optimally mounted within a Wreath) each representing different virtues such as hope, peace, joy, and love, further underscores the spiritual journey of this season. These candles serve as beacons of light in the darkness, symbolising the growing anticipation of the coming light of Christ.

The Advent period also intersects with the winter solstice on/around the 21st December, a pagan tradition that sees people gather at dawn at historic sites like Stonehenge and Avebury Stone Circle to celebrate the shortest day.

In conclusion, while chocolate-filled Advent calendars undoubtedly bring joy, their true magic lies in the opportunity they present to delve into the deeper spirit of the season.

Advent at its core is a time of spiritual connection, preparation, reflection, and making deeper social connections that enable us to transcend the commercial ideology of the festive season.

Perfectionism is not, in and of itself, a negative trait. Perfectionists are often conscientious high achievers; our greatest weakness is also our greatest strength. But those trying to be constantly perfect can find that every task feels like an unconquerable burden and every essay a path to failure, however unlikely our friends and family might find our doom-laden predictions. Here are three thoughts to use to beat the unrealistic idealism that may currently be beating you.

1. “I am aiming for my own version of perfect.”

What is perfect, anyway? Maybe you could decide. Perhaps perfection could simply mean sitting down at your messy desk, ignoring the clothes on the floor, and spending 10 minutes planning the first half of your essay. In this deeply imperfect and challenging world, if you were to be reasonable with yourself, your definition of perfect should, and could, be different. Redefine perfection: make it doable and make it your own.

2. “I don’t HAVE to do it; I GET to do it.”

A to-do list is a depressing sight, if, at every item, we are telling ourselves that we ‘have to’ or ‘must’ do this or that. But turn ‘have to’ into ‘get to’ and suddenly life seems more joyful. Perhaps it is an irritating piece of advice, an unwelcome call to simply have more gratitude, but studying is essentially an overwhelmingly positive thing. You are learning and growing, and you have access to great materials and educated teachers; you are lucky. And so, even if it feels at first like you are lying to yourself, tell yourself, next time you inspect your to-do list: “I get to plan my essay today”.

3. “A perfect dissertation is a finished dissertation.”

We will do it, but we are waiting for the perfect time when we are in the mood. Because we know we can do it well, and not just well but REALLY well. And so that is the aim. This isn’t laziness, for the fear is real: we cannot bear to submit anything less than our best; we cannot tolerate failure; and we want to be proud of what we have achieved. We have visualised (or we think we have) the perfect essay or assignment. But the truth is that you have a deadline. Perhaps you could achieve perfection if you had eternity to complete it. But you don’t. Most tasks have a timeline, whether it is 6 years to complete a part-time PhD, or one night to finish an essay. And the test is not what you can achieve, but what you can achieve in the time you have to complete it. The definition of perfect might simply be this: finished.

It has long been tradition that the Christian Church gives special recognition to people who dedicated their lives to their faith, with many being executed because of their Christian ideals. It was also tradition that the date of their martyrdom, or the date of their death (and thus their ascension to Heaven), became the date on which that saint is commemorated. These dates originally became known as Feast Days, though this did not necessarily mean that large meals were held in honour of that saint, and the Church developed a Calendar of Saints to help remember each one, which served as inspiration to be a true and good Christian. Each day of the year is associated with at least one saint, with these Feast Days presenting a time for Christians to honour and celebrate particular saints and the aspects of life that they are affiliated with. There is even a tradition that parents name their child after the saint’s day that they were born on.

From Feast Days To Saints Days

Today, even non-Christians mark certain saints days. The feast days of the patron saints of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland are often marked in calendars and it’s common for people to celebrate St. Valentine’s Day and All Saints Day. But what about the other days of the year? Let’s take a moment to learn the stories of a few of the lesser-known saints.

St. Margaret of Antioch

Margaret was born into a pagan family at the end of the 3rd century. Her wet-nurse encouraged her to convert to Catholicism as a young girl and she took a vow of celibacy. However, a Roman governor wished to marry her and when Margaret refused she was imprisoned and tortured. The story goes that, whilst in prison, Satan appeared to Margaret in the form of a dragon and ate her whole but Margaret used the cross she was wearing to cut open the dragon from the inside and escape. Future attempts to murder Margaret failed and she inspired thousands of people to convert to Christianity. She was, however, eventually beheaded, and, despite being known as Margaret the Virgin, is celebrated as the patron saint of pregnancy on the 20th July. She is also known as being one of the saints to have appeared to Joan of Arc in her visions.

St. Erasmus (St. Elmo)

A common narrative shared by many saints is that they were imprisoned because of their faith, subjected to horrific torture, then miraculously saved. St. Elmo is a prime example of this. The first time he was imprisoned and tortured, an angel helped him to escape. The second time he was captured, he was tortured by being forced into a barrel lined with spikes which was then rolled down a hill. But again, he was rescued by an angel who healed his wounds. The third time, he was burnt alive before being thrown into prison. Elmo escaped prison again but was once more captured and this time tortured to death by having his intestines drawn out and tied around a pole. He is one of the patron saints of sailors, his feast day being the 2nd June.

St. Quiteria

According to Portuguese tradition, St. Quiteria is the most well-known of the Nonuplet Sisters born in the 2nd century. Disgusted at having given birth to nine daughters, Quiteria’s mother ordered a maid to drown the girls, but the maid took pity on them and found them a new home. As adults, all nine women found Christianity and, after refusing to marry Roman suitors, were imprisoned. On escaping prison, the women waged war on the Roman Empire and followers of the old Roman gods. Quiteria was eventually caught and beheaded. Her feast day is the 22nd May.

To learn who the saints for each day of the year are, you can find the Saints Day Calendar at Calenworld.com.

Patterns of work and employment change over time as science and engineering discover new materials and more efficient production processes to satisfy our constant need for goods and services. These processes create new opportunities, but all too frequently destroy established communities. Over the next 10 years current advances in IT, robotics and artificial intelligence are forecast to wipe out over one quarter of the of the occupations we now associate with white-collar professional work in, for example, law, medicine, banking retail services and commercial occupations. The “working class” experienced the phenomenon early in the industrial revolution, it is now the turn of the “middle class”.

Robert Halfon, chairman of the Educational Select Committee, wants the present system of secondary education to be scrapped, with GCSE and A levels replaced by a mixture of arts, science and vocational subjects – a baccalaureate curriculum as is common practice in Europe and the USA.

The British educational establishment have a track record for rejecting change, but often it has been for valid reasons; a lack of financial support, inadequate numbers of qualified teachers, difficulties in tame-tabling across a diverse range of subjects and last but not least the continual disruption of school management. Hence there are fewer opportunities, outside colleges of further and higher education that cater for students aged 16 and over, to introduce vocational subjects into schools, such as accountancy.

Far more important in the present climate, though, are the budgetary constraints in a period of continuing austerity. This situation makes it almost impossible to allocate resources (in terms of staff and practical facilities) and provide an innovative, mixed curriculum. Nor is it certain that middle class parents would be happy to see the GCSE “Gold Standard” exam at 16 abolished – or, similarly, high-performing grammar schools, who could see their specialist A-level 6th-form diluted. Both GCSE and A level examinations have acquired a certain cache in our deeply class-conscious society. Further, the proposals raise questions for those secondary schools without sixth forms and would be devoid of any focus on public examinations. Either money would have to be found for them to introduce the new curriculum from scratch, or they would have to be phased out, with the inevitable negative impact on local communities.

It is also likely that universities, who wield considerable influence on schools, might object that the new proposals would dilute academic attainment at 18. They would cite particularly those students wanting to study medicine, despite the fact that the same universities have been very quick to address the concerns of industry that their graduates are ill-equipped to face the challenges of work in the “real world”. This objection is likely to be the principle concern of the Russell Group of top universities led by Oxford and Cambridge. The British system is a hierarchy, in which the top echelons jealously guard their traditional status and social prestige.

However, trumping all these objections are the pressing concerns of the inadequate funding of the current system. Before introducing any more new innovations there are multiple issues to address; the inability to recruit and retain specialist teachers for one, to provide textbooks for another, and to fund the liberal arts subjects, especially music. The maintenance of good quality language teaching is equally vital.

In the 1870s Germany began to overtake Britain as a manufacturing nation. One of the contributing factors was that they developed specialist schools and universities as equals of their gymnasium provision. For this to happen in modern Britain we need a cultural change amongst the middle class, to accept that getting one’s hands dirty in a school workshop or lab is okay.

The Day of the Immaculate Conception, a hugely important fiesta day in the Catholic calendar, is the day that Jesus’ conception is celebrated – right? Wrong!

In fact, the Immaculate Conception is the day recognised by the Catholic Church as the date of the conception of the Virgin Mary, not her son, Jesus. Following a decree by Pope Clement XI in 1708 the date was set as the 8th December, 9 months before her recognised birth date, the 8th September, the latter of which is celebrated as the Feast of the Nativity of Mary.

Mary ‘s is not a virgin birth, despite the fact that the term used to describe her conception appears to imply this. Although Mary’s parents were not named in the bible, stories passed from generation to generation tell the tale of how much she was wanted, and the way that she was raised. Her parents, Saint Anne and Saint Joachim, were childless for many years, according to these tales (although John 19:25 says that Mary has a sister). They were godly people who donated a large part of their income to the poor and needy.

After appealing to God, Saint Joachim receives an angelic message telling him that he will have a daughter, and he heads to meet his wife to find that she, also, has received the same message. They meet at the city gate (known as the Golden Gate of Jerusalem) which is represented in much of the art created around this story, usually with Mary’s parents embracing or kissing under the gate. The Quran does also mention Mary’s parents (known as Hannah and Imran), and says that Hannah did not want children until she was older. She saw a bird feeding its babies, and was struck with the desire to have children.

In Catholic countries, El Día de la Immaculada Conceptión (The Day of the Immaculate Conception) means (for many people at least) a day off work to reflect, to spend with family, or for those who are less religious, to spend in the bar! Most shops are closed, giving a welcome break from the pre-Christmas panic buying. This gives the tourist and resident alike the chance to enjoy the sights and sounds of the Christmas lights and decorations that adorn the streets of almost every town and village, and the elaborate and detailed nativity scenes that can fill entire shop frontages. Christmas markets will usually still be open, providing the opportunity to calmly browse and soak in the atmosphere – but bars and restaurants are likely to be very busy, so if you’re looking for a more lively atmosphere, head to the celebrations that are to be had here. In Northern Spain, venues may have roaring fires to take away the chill of the season, whereas on the south coast the temperature will most likely not drop below 15˚C before sunset, so the parties will all be on the beach and in the street cafes.

However, this is, of course, above all an important religious day, so a visit to any Catholic church on El Día de la Immaculada Conceptión will be the destination for many who want to experience this day as it was originally designed to be experienced. Just don’t forget whose conception you are celebrating!

Many of you who are doing exams this year will be revising or starting to think about revising. As a tutor, I am often asked, “What should I revise?” The answer is, unfortunately, everything that you have covered in the course. No one except the exam writers know what is going to be in the exams in any single year, so always make sure that you cover everything.

Barnaby Lenon, an ex-headmaster at Harrow, has recently written in a blog that GCSE students should revise their course at least three times. The same applies for A level students, but officially there is no magic number given as to how many times you should do so. Usually, however, it will be more than once. Some lucky people, the exceptions, can read something once and it will “go in”, but more will have to go through the course over and over again for it to sink it. We are all different, and this is the main point with revising – what works for one person will not work for another.

With all this in mind, there are some tips below. Remember, some will work for you, some won’t.

• Find a good place to work. Some of you will like quiet, others will like some noise. We all work best in certain places. Some students may like to work in a library, others in their room, others in a coffee shop. Find a place that works well for you and stick to it.

• What time works best for you? Some people work better early in the morning, others in the afternoon, others late at night. Again, stick to what works for you. If you are a night owl, it’s pointless to try and force yourself to get up early and study – it just won’t work as well. Use your strengths and find the best time to suit you.

• Avoid distractions. There are so many distractions today: mobile phones, television, emails and so on. It can make it hard to study. If you are reading this now but also looking at your social media feed on your phone, for example, it’s doubtful all you are reading will go in. So avoid such distractions if you can. Turn off your phone. Turn off your emails. If you find it hard to do this, give yourself a time limit, “I will revise for one hour, then spend five minutes looking at my phone.”

• With the above point also in mind, some students find it hard to sit down and study for long periods. Others prefer it. Again, you should do what suits you best. If you do find it hard to sit for long periods, give yourself a reward. One student I worked with played volleyball at national level. He found it very hard to sit down for long periods and study. Consequently he was doing hardly any revision. We came up with a plan. He would revise for 50 minutes, then go outside and play with a ball or go for a jog for ten minutes. Then he would revise for 50 minutes again and so on. This worked well for him. You may find a similar reward works for you, looking at your phone, going for a walk, making a cup of tea, watching TV, phoning a friend and so on. Decide on your time limit and give yourself a reward.

• Aim to study for no more than two and a half hours without taking a break. You are probably not revising as well as you would if you carry on revising after that time.

• Making and reading notes and using flashcards can all work well for some students. Others can make recordings of their notes and listen back to them when they are going for a walk or even when they are sleeping at night – Mind maps and memory palaces can also be useful when revising. Again, find a method that works well for you and stick to it.

• If you are reading something and it isn’t sinking in or you don’t understand it. Try a few of the following techniques…
o Read it out loud. When you do this, sometimes it seems to make more sense.
o Try and explain it to someone else – You may find that you know far more than you think you do when you explain it to another person.
o Read it in another way. There are a lot of resources online today, so if you don’t understand your notes or textbook, look online and find another explanation.

• Making a revision timetable for when you intend to revise your subject is also useful. You may be revising for more than one subject, so work out when you are going to study and make a plan for each subject.

• Practice exam papers and old TMAs under “exam conditions.”

• Try to take off a day a week. You decide which day. Take some time off from all that studying.

• Try to start revising as soon as you can. The earlier you start to revise, the more revision you will do.

Remember, you have revised before. You know what has worked well for you and what didn’t. So if you have a good way of revising, stick to it. But if your way hasn’t worked so well, why not try another option from those listed above? There is also of course a lot of advice out there online and in books. The best way to revise is the way that works for YOU! So find your best method and stick to it.

Finally, though success in them is all about your hard work and revision, I am still going to wish you this – Good luck with your exams!

 

The news continues to be peppered by events in the middle east. The numerous nations involved in the current rebel conflicts in the region are often reported on, often quoted. But who is doing what? And is any of it working?

It is tempting to argue that foreign policy was easier to conduct in the 19th century than in the much more dangerous and chaotic world of the 21st. In the 19th century, foreign relations were conducted between governments who, broadly speaking, shared the same values, obeyed the same rules of diplomacy and morality, and who operated from national states with clear boundaries and functioning civic institutions.

In the first half of the 21st century, Middle East national states and democratic forms of government hardly exist. Instead, tribalism, feudal loyalties, fluid borders and religious and ethnic conflicts make long-standing alliances almost impossible to sustain.

Qatar, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Iran are all rivals for influence in the region and give reluctant support to the West. At the same time, though, they provide clandestine funding to Jihadists fighting in Iraq and Syria. Private individuals in the Gulf States and in the wider Muslim Diaspora, operate on a global scale, channel-funding these fighters via Qatar and the Kuwaiti banking system.

The Jihadists have developed a quasi-state structure with the implementation of Sharia law and a rudimentary tax system. In eastern Syria this controls the supply of oil and water. The local population are dependent on its centralised distribution system; weapons are traded amongst all groups and across all borders, with Kurds and Turks acting as middle-men. What you have in the Middle East are warlord fiefdoms reminiscent of 20th century China. Today’s friends are tomorrow’s enemies.

All this began in 2012-13, when America failed to intervene against President Assad in Syria, and Russia was allowed a free hand to assist his dictatorship with weapons. As far as Turkey and Saudi Arabia were concerned, it was time to build bridges with rebel groups in Syria, at least on a temporary basis. One effect was the formation and development of the ISIS Caliphate, which has grown more powerful and increasingly cruel, to the extent that now other countries in the region have begun to insure themselves against their extremist attacks. But the comprehensive defeat of Hammas and the American support of the Kurds with US air-strikes this year has once again changed alliances in the region. A very hesitant rapprochement between Iran and American support became possible, as did some cooperation between Sunni Saudi Arabia and Shia Iran, long-standing rivals for power. Even Moscow has a shared interest with the West, with ISIS vowing to “liberate” Chechnya amongst other targets.

All of this constitutes an array of strange allegiances; Iran is still burdened with American sanctions, but supports them in their air-strikes against ISIS. The Kurds welcome this air support too, but are unwilling to carry their fight against ISIS into Syria. Russia defied America in its actions over the Ukraine, yet is happy to turn a blind eye to any US intervention in Syria. There is even talk of cooperation with Assad to defeat ISIS. No wonder, then, that there is no clear or decisive foreign policy emerging from either Washington or London.

Throughout history, religion has influenced politics in the Middle East. But whereas in Europe religion has receded as secularism and modernity have evolved, in the Islamic world religious tensions have grown in intensity.

Islam recognises no distinction between religion, politics and law. Hence there can be no legitimate distinction between church and state as in western societies. In Islam there is little distinction between private and public life. Similarly, plurality in religion and politics is far weaker than in western societies.

The tensions between the two major branches of Islam – Shia and Sunni – originated in the schism within Islam after the death of Mohammad, The Prophet, in 632: a dispute over which of his descendants were the rightful caliph of the Islamic World. This still has resonance today.

In the Arab world as a whole, the majority of believers are Sunni. In Iraq, however, 65% of the population are Shia, though this is a figure disputed by the nation’s Sunnis. The Shia tend to be unrepresented in government, poor and loyal to tribe and family connection rather than the State.

Three secular forces have at various times presented alternative systems of rule outside the boundaries of religion; western style democracy, communism and Ba’athism. The latter provided a nationalist ideology, a single party state, a secular society and, under the brutal rule of Saddam Hussein, the conduct of politics in military terms. His aggressive leadership took Iraq to war with Iran, led to the occupation of Kuwait, and committed genocide against both the nation’s Kurd and Shia populations.

In the 1990’s, Saddam introduced a “piety campaign” in response to the hardships caused by international sanctions against his rule. In an attempt to gain sympathy in the Arab world he also upped his anti-Israeli rhetoric.

After the second Gulf war the Shia dominated Iraqi politics, electing Noori al-Maliki as Prime Minister. A savage civil war between Sunni and Shia followed. The regular army and security forces disintegrated and people relied on irregular sectarian militias to defend their communities. It was from here that the Islamic State movement, ISIS, grew.

It is difficult to imagine the unification of Sunni, Shia and Kurd into a unified national state. Outside influences are already in play, with predominantly Shia Iran supporting their coreligionists and Sunni Saudi Arabia set to act in a like manner. Ir remains to be seen whether or not America is prepared to put troops on the ground and push for such a unification, but it seems unlikely at present. They will probably prefer to protect their oil interests in Kurdistan instead, not risking ties with oil-rich Saudi Arabia or their chances of accommodation with the future nuclear power of Iran.