Did you know that false confessions are the leading case of wrongful convictions in murder cases? Or that according to the Innocence Project, 25% of wrongful convictions overturned by DNA evidence involve a false confession?
False confessions reveal a concerning aspect of the criminal justice system and the fairness of its legal processes. Research and past cases have revealed how social, psychological and systemic factors can lead to innocent people admitting to crimes they did not commit, which in turn, can lead to wrongful convictions.
In 1985, Dr Saul Kassin categorised false confessions into three types: voluntary false confessions (without external pressure); compliant false confessions (resulting from interrogation pressure) and persuaded false confessions (resulting from internalising a belief they committed the crime).
Modern interrogation techniques, such as the Reid Technique, can convince innocent suspects, through psychological pressure or fear of worse outcomes, that confessing is their best option. False evidence such as DNA tampering and bogus witness statements can also lead to individuals doubting their own recollections or innocence. Young individuals and those with disabilities or social disadvantages are at the most risk to false confession.
One high-profile instance of false confession was during the case of the Central Park Five in 1989, where five black and Latino teenagers were accused of rape and assault. The young, innocent teenagers were interrogated coercively without legal representation for hours. Despite a lack of physical evidence, they confessed and were eventually convicted. In 2002, the actual culprit was caught through conclusive DNA evidence and the five were exonerated.
Another case from 1996 involved the wrongful conviction of a police officer, Scott Hornoff. He voluntarily confessed to the murder of his friend in 1989, but later inconsistencies in his confession began to show as well as new DNA evidence pointing to the true culprit. What makes this case unusual is that Scott’s confession was voluntary, not the result of interrogation or psychological pressure.
False confessions have damaging consequences to the criminal justice system, where public trust in the process becomes eroded and true criminals remain free. Methods to help prevent them can include the compulsory recording of interrogations to ensure transparency and legitimacy. Suspects should also be entitled to proper legal representation during this process. Alternative interrogation methods could also be a way to build rapport with suspects to help decrease psychological pressure while session time limits could help to maintain their mental health.
Whether you embrace the fresh frost of winter, or feel the blues of gloomier skies, the changing seasons can impact our moods, psyche and general wellbeing more than we think. Researchers are finding more links between the climate and our social behaviours, illustrating how the impact on our lives of changing seasons is multifaceted. Let’s delve into some key findings.
Commonly known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), this form of depression is understood to be related to decreased exposure to sunlight that occurs with the coming of winter. According to Emma Young in The Psychologist (2023) two million people are affected by SAD in the UK alone. Studies into SAD found that people with this disorder may eat and sleep more, and feel less motivated and productive, while other studies found that people have higher levels of serotonin in the brain during summer, and lower levels during the winter. This substantiates that colder, darker weather, and all the associated environmental changes, can negatively impact people’s psyches.
While colder weather may cause peoples’ moods to plunge, warmer weather is thought to increase irritability and the chances of violence (Young, 2023). Research into violent crime rates in Philadelphia in the US found that violence increased by 9% on hotter days, while other studies demonstrate increased rates of domestic violence and disordered prisoner behaviour during summer months. What makes this more concerning is the planet’s rise in temperatures which researchers Andreas Miles-Novelo and Craig Anderson in particular, are focused on. The rising temperature of the planet could, according to them, lead to several thousand more serious assaults in the US each year (Young, 2023).
Similarly to animals who hibernate in the winter and store additional calories to prepare for food scarcity, it is thought that humans experience similar urges, too. During autumn and winter, people are more likely to consume more calories and gain weight, and become less physically active. While we might feel this is simply because we’re deterred by the cold and seek comforting food, researchers believe biological mechanisms may be responsible. One study even suggested that warmer weather can make us feel fuller with fewer calories, when compared to a colder day.
In Ian Hohm’s (2023) research on the topic, he found that during December, the ‘Christmas Effect’ makes people more charitable, which is also reflected across other cultures and religions when religious events take place. Conversely, Hohm also highlights that Christmas intensifies feelings of loneliness or anxiety, while managing costs during this period also increases levels of stress.
However, the growing gloom doesn’t always cast shade over our mood and behaviour. Hohm and his colleagues observed that greenish-yellow colours are associated with autumn leaves, and these colours are preferred during the autumn. While research in Belgium found that healthy young people’s ability to sustain attention and memory was better during winter than summer.
So, it seems that variations in the weather impact human psychology in a major way. Hohm and his fellow researchers now understand the importance of timing when data is collected and how the season may impact the results. Hohm (2023) states that ‘Rather than remaining an overlooked source of noise in the database of the psychological sciences, seasonal variation can instead be systematically documented as a key source of signal – a fundamental feature of human psychology,’.
References
Hohm, Ian. (2023) Homo temporus: Seasonal Cycles as a Fundamental Source of Variation in Human Psychology. Source: Homo temporus: Seasonal Cycles as a Fundamental Source of Variation in Human Psychology – Ian Hohm, Alexandra S. Wormley, Mark Schaller, Michael E. W. Varnum, 2024
Varnum, Michael E. W. (2023) How the Seasons Affect Our Psychology in Psychology Today. Source: How the Seasons Affect Our Psychology | Psychology Today.
Young, Emma (2023). Seasons and the psyche in The Psychologist. Source: The British Psychological Society Seasons and the psyche | BPS.
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Attachment styles effect everything in our lives, from our friendships and romantic relationships to workplace interactions. Understanding a person’s attachment style can be an indicator of their relationship satisfaction and communication style as well as a predictor of future physical and mental health.
Attachment styles depict the way emotional bonds are formed between individuals, especially in intimate relationships and are often passed down through family generations. They stem from the early childhood bonds with a primary caregiver, such as a parent or guardian, and influence how future relationships are formed. The concept of attachment styles was first introduced by John Bowlby in 1969 and was later expanded on by Mary Ainsworth using an assessment technique called Strange Situation Classification. Some research suggests that genetics and cultural expectations can also play a role in attachment style development.
The four attachment styles are: secure, anxious, avoidant-dismissive and disorganised. Secure attachment styles are characterised by individuals who are empathetic, able to set boundaries and feel safe within close relationships. Their relationships tend to be long-lasting and healthy. As an infant, their primary caregiver was engaged and met both physical and emotional needs. Anxious attachment styles are characterised by neediness, low self-esteem and a craving for emotional intimacy. The primary caregiver relationship may have been inconsistent, moving between engaged and unavailable parenting.
The avoidant-dismissive attachment style is the opposite to the anxious style, where the individual finds emotional intimacy difficult and is often independent. Their primary caregiver was most likely unavailable to meet their emotional needs. The disorganised attachment style stems from a high level of fear, often as a result of childhood trauma and can lead to mental health disorders in later life. Their primary caregiver may have been dealing with unresolved trauma themselves, acting as both a source of comfort and fear.
Attachment styles are not permanent and can shift from secure to insecure styles and vice-versa. For example, life altering events and traumatic incidences in later life can lead to the adoption of insecure behaviours. On the other hand, insecure individuals can become aware of their behaviours and beliefs and make conscious efforts to address underlying causes. This can include analysing the root of childhood issues or surrounding themselves with individuals who already have a secure attachment style.
As research continues, future advances in technology such as brain imaging can help identify neural circuits that contribute to attachment behaviours. Societal changes such as the growing trend of online digital networking and differing cultural norms, parenting practices and societal structures may all have an influence on future emotional attachment connections and must be explored further to understand their impact.
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Consumer behaviours are often complex, involving many factors that contribute to the decision-making process. By understanding the psychology behind this process, marketers can tailor advertising to their target audience on a more personal level, while ensuring their products meet their consumer’s needs.
Before making a purchase, consumers move through a series of stages: recognising a problem, searching for information, evaluating the alternatives and finally making the purchase. A number of psychological factors influence consumer decisions at each of these stages.
A consumer will make decisions based on how they are feeling. In fact, around 86% of our purchase decisions are influenced by our emotions as we aim to meet a subconscious need or desire. For example, positive emotions can lead to spontaneous purchases and impulse buys while negative emotions such as fear can lead to safety purchases or sticking to familiar brands. Advertisers can use emotional triggers to create a strong connection with their brand.
As a consumer, our choices are heavily influenced by our culture and by other people such as our friends and family. Traditions, societal norms and shared beliefs are an important part of a consumer’s choice to buy and ‘fit in’ with social expectations. If we are uncertain about a choice, we are more likely to go with a product that has been given social proof by people we trust. Marketers can use influential celebrities or customer reviews to help reassure consumers and create this sense of trust.
Learned biases can affect our judgements on a subconscious level, influencing our shopping habits, brand loyalty and consumer behaviour. We are often presented with so much choice and information when deciding on a product that our brains often take short-cuts to make the process faster. During heuristic decision making, consumers usually agree that higher-priced items are often perceived as having higher quality, thereby lowering the risk of bad decision. Customers also tend to stick with familiar or popular brands when feeling indecisive.
Research shows a consumer will prioritise their decisions based on a company’s ethical standing, and this is especially true with millennials and generation Z. Consumers are now considering other criteria such as human rights, environmental approaches and sustainable practices when choosing a brand and businesses have realised that demonstrating these desirable values helps to foster trust and life-long customers. A phenomenon known as conspicuous ethics has become more prominent in recent decades, where the consumer is willing to pay more for a product for the feeling of superior ethical responsibility.
Nowadays, it is very easy for the consumer to gain access to information and values about a brand or product. Businesses must continually adapt to evolving needs as their customers become more discerning and their decision-making priorities change.
2023 saw ChatGPT equipping the masses with ground-breaking AI capabilities and functionality, but also introduced the concerning reality of AI-generated content, bringing with it the risks of AI plagiarism from both students and professionals. As a result, “ChatGPT” emerged as the breakout word of 2023, but “Deepfake” appears poised to claim that title in 2024. Deepfake extends beyond plagiarism, encompassing the creation of highly realistic yet fraudulent videos or images of influential individuals using AI tools. These deceptive creations are then maliciously disseminated across the internet, social media and even television platforms for political or commercial gains.
Previously relegated to the realms of tech journalism and cyber-security, the Taylor Swift deepfake scandal at the onset of the year propelled deepfake into the mainstream spotlight, even garnering attention from the periodical, The Scientific American. Millions of fans found themselves deceived or nearly deceived by deepfake Taylor Swift advertisements, thrusting the issue into public consciousness, and prompting widespread concern over the issue.
Fortunately, many deepfakes are discernibly fabricated, intentionally crafted for comedic or illustrative purposes, as seen in examples like the Seinfeld Pulp Fiction mashup or the Morgan Freeman impersonation. Moreover, vigilant users typically identify and flag inconspicuous deepfakes swiftly, mitigating the risk of widespread deception. However, amidst the flurry of crucial elections of global political figures this year, the spectre of deepfake-driven political propaganda looms large. Consequently, media organisations, which play a pivotal role in disseminating global news, are intensifying their efforts to detect deepfakes.
A recent example of this proactive stance around ungenuine images is the Princess of Wales’s doctored photo, which was uncovered via hyper-vigilant deepfake detection protocols within media outlets responsible for distributing the Royal’s Mother’s Day family picture. While this incident was innocent, such detection measures may prove indispensable in identifying nefarious uses of deepfakes for commercial and political manipulation in 2024.
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Perfectionism is not, in and of itself, a negative trait. Perfectionists are often conscientious high achievers; our greatest weakness is also our greatest strength. But those trying to be constantly perfect can find that every task feels like an unconquerable burden and every essay a path to failure, however unlikely our friends and family might find our doom-laden predictions. Here are three thoughts to use to beat the unrealistic idealism that may currently be beating you.
What is perfect, anyway? Maybe you could decide. Perhaps perfection could simply mean sitting down at your messy desk, ignoring the clothes on the floor, and spending 10 minutes planning the first half of your essay. In this deeply imperfect and challenging world, if you were to be reasonable with yourself, your definition of perfect should, and could, be different. Redefine perfection: make it doable and make it your own.
A to-do list is a depressing sight, if, at every item, we are telling ourselves that we ‘have to’ or ‘must’ do this or that. But turn ‘have to’ into ‘get to’ and suddenly life seems more joyful. Perhaps it is an irritating piece of advice, an unwelcome call to simply have more gratitude, but studying is essentially an overwhelmingly positive thing. You are learning and growing, and you have access to great materials and educated teachers; you are lucky. And so, even if it feels at first like you are lying to yourself, tell yourself, next time you inspect your to-do list: “I get to plan my essay today”.
We will do it, but we are waiting for the perfect time when we are in the mood. Because we know we can do it well, and not just well but REALLY well. And so that is the aim. This isn’t laziness, for the fear is real: we cannot bear to submit anything less than our best; we cannot tolerate failure; and we want to be proud of what we have achieved. We have visualised (or we think we have) the perfect essay or assignment. But the truth is that you have a deadline. Perhaps you could achieve perfection if you had eternity to complete it. But you don’t. Most tasks have a timeline, whether it is 6 years to complete a part-time PhD, or one night to finish an essay. And the test is not what you can achieve, but what you can achieve in the time you have to complete it. The definition of perfect might simply be this: finished.
Whatever subject you are studying or qualification you are studying for, contact with your teacher or tutor – even when remote – is an invaluable part of that process. They are usually the subject experts, have a full understanding of the assessment process and have, more often than not, supported many other students who felt exactly the same as you do now about their learning. Whether you are confident in your subject knowledge and looking for ways to stretch yourself in order to achieve the very best results or are still a little uncertain and unsure how you might secure the grade you need, your tutors can provide you with the support you require. Here are a few simple strategies every student should try in order to boost the benefits of the contact they have.
Put simply, meet their expectations! If they provide a task, complete it. If they set a deadline, meet it. If you have a meeting, be there. Programmes of study and assessment schedules are in place to meet the needs of everyone; ensuring that there is adequate time for covering all of the content, assessing progress and providing feedback. A tutor works with many students and if you don’t adhere to the plan then you are unlikely to get the time you deserve. If there is a problem with the schedule set out for you, talk to your tutor in advance so that they can make any amendment they possibly can in order to make sure that everyone’s needs are met. If a tutor sees you are committed to your learning and doing what is required they are likely to go above and beyond in the ways in which they support you.
As already mentioned, the tutor is the subject expert. They have the knowledge of the subject but also the ways it is assessed and how to ensure you can demonstrate it when required to do so. Listen to their advice. Take notes where required. Follow their suggestions. However, if there is something you are unsure about, don’t be afraid to ask! Questioning is key to developing a deeper understanding and mastery of a subject but is also a great tool in ensuring there have been no miscommunications or misunderstandings. Your tutor will respect your ability to really engage with the content you are covering together and look for ways to address your questions in more detail.
Receiving feedback is one of the most important parts of the learning journey. However, many of us find getting feedback something that is really, really hard! Instead of thinking about what is said by your tutor as being ‘good’ or ‘bad’, try to consider what you can learn from it instead. If you are given praise for a certain aspect of your work, think about what you did that made this so effective. If there are comments relating to something that hasn’t worked out so well then think about what you might do differently next time. Reflection is key to making progress. Also, apply the same thought process when it comes to your attitude to learning. If a tutor comments on this, avoid taking it personally and think of how you might use what they have said to become a more effective learner.
Don’t forget that any contact that you have with your tutor is designed to benefit YOU. If you are in need of something specific from that contact then, again, do not be afraid to ask! In reality, this involves planning and preparing for any contact you have before you have it. Make a note of any questions you have when studying independently. If you need to revisit any material with them, ask in advance. If you have found a subject area particularly easy or hard, let them know. Remember, your tutor will be looking to support you in a way that is personalised to meet your needs too, so the more effectively you’re able to communicate these, the better they will be able to do this.
In Part 1, I discussed how we artificially divide up areas of human knowledge to our own detriment. In Part 2, I will look at ways in which we can create a society that looks beyond these classifications towards a multidisciplinary world.
Perhaps the logical place to begin this epic untangling of divisions is in the education system. Schools are a place where subjects exist, almost pathologically, in isolation from each other. An expert who is educated only in their own subject explains their knowledge, before children are passed to the next expert. Physics, biology and chemistry are often separate subjects. Children are not often challenged to explain natural processes from multiple perspectives simultaneously. Maybe if they start to explain things in terms of atoms, chemicals and biological systems from the beginning it will yield huge breakthroughs in the future.
Science is increasingly moving towards enormous datasets that will be processed by artificial intelligence. Fortunately, artificial intelligence does not just adopt one perspective when analysing data, like a person does.
However, perhaps the easiest, most human solution to the segregation of the sciences is to encourage more time in the same rooms. Of course, there are many interdisciplinary conferences, and many subjects are closely aligned, but that could be made far more commonplace. It is challenging to do so as we are moving into an age of such complexity that within even a single science there are hundreds of lifetime’s worth of subspecialisms. How can any inter-disciplinary dialogue be created effectively when they all almost speak in different languages?
Such is the barriers that must be overcome, whether through a change in mindset or the intelligent reorganisation of existing systems.
Our tribal ancestry has never completely left us. We still love to linger in “in-group, out-group” psychology. Look at our political parties, not permitted to be in agreement with each other even if they are. This is evidenced in literally every discipline, workplace, and academic circle. “Why doesn’t [insert other group’s name] understand that this is the way it works?!”.
I’m not advocating intellectual relativism. There is a right and wrong in some cases. But we need to tell people from the earliest age that there is no black and white. For example, Music contains Science; when strings vibrate at frequencies that are pleasing to the ear, and when these frequencies are doubled, the same note is produced. We evolved to appreciate these frequencies as a way of bonding in human communities. All subjects exist on a continuum.
There is no telling where this will take us if we are able to emancipate ourselves from the separate rooms we have put ourselves in. Perhaps this is the next step in our social and psychological evolution.
Someone once asked a group of top scientists and researchers why the chicken crossed the road to reach an attractive rooster. The evolutionary biologist said “because her ancestors out-competed their rivals by responding to romantic bids, despite danger”. A sage psychologist disagreed. He claimed angrily that it was necessary to consider the principles of behaviourism to understand the chicken. A vet claimed that she had just had surgery which had improved her circulation, and it was undoubtedly due to the increased blood flow. Such is the way of the multidisciplinary.
Clearly, you could keep going ad-nauseum. The point is that all of the scientists have a valid point. Aristotle created one of the earliest systems of classification, and formed part of the method of seeing the world we now know as “Science”. The world is immensely complicated, however, so it was necessary to further classify into many different sciences, each with its own specialists. As is the way with humans, we then proceeded to forget that these classifications of different sciences were, in fact, imaginary and made for our own convenience. Undeniably, classifications are very useful to us indeed. If you wanted to answer the chicken question from every conceivable perspective, you would be drowned in possibilities.
This dividing up of continuums can be seen throughout the human experience. With language there is a phenomenon called “allophony”. This is effectively having multiple spoken sounds for one letter. If you say “little”, for example, the first “L” is not the same as the second (which is a “dark L”, in phonetics). English speakers will often not register this, whereas a speaker of a different language would be able to easily. Similarly, if there is a name for a colour in one culture (a random point on the ultraviolet spectrum), those people will struggle to differentiate it from different tones of the same colour. People from other cultures with distinct names for those shades will identify them easily. These examples effectively demonstrate the way that the human brain leans naturally towards segmentation and classification.
One of the main problems is that the disciplinary approach stifles cooperation and growth. Often, psychologists and psychiatrists will angrily disagree about how we should interpret human behaviour. Without dialogue though, it will stay as just another blinkered squabble. These issues can be found throughout the sciences, as well as many other disciplines.
So effectively, we are dealing with a human limitation, our need to classify to understand, and our forgetfulness that this is a man-made construct. The challenge of the next scientific paradigm will be to knock down many of these walls and, at least attempt to, see things from a multidisciplinary perspective.
In Part 2, I will explore some possible ways that we can create more of a multidisciplinary society and begin to move away from the old models of thought that have taken us a long way, but in many cases have outgrown their use.
Choosing subjects to study is an important consideration, of this there is no doubt. However, in recent years the campaign for jobs and the drive for individuals to study employment-specific STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) subjects has left the arts, the humanities and the social sciences in an undermined position.
From Sociology to Literature, History to Psychology and Geography, these, and many more are all considered to be under the broad umbrella of the Humanities, with Psychology, Sociology, and Geography sub-grouped into social sciences.
So would anyone consider studying a course that sets you up for what some have termed as ‘career suicide’? Is it worth it? What will be achieved other than a confirmed ability to follow a prescribed syllabus and learn the required information to pass exams or produce coursework?
George Anders, in his book entitled You can do anything: The Surprising power of a ‘Useless’ Liberal Arts Education, says “curiosity, creativity, and empathy aren’t unruly traits that must be reigned in to ensure success. The job market is quietly crying out for people who can bring a humanist’s grace to our rapidly evolving high-tech future.”
Tempering the needs of a rapidly growing STEM world needs to be the humanising of The Arts, ensuring that the heart and soul of the species, as well as its stomach and head, are catered for.
So what will studying the Humanities actually, broadly, offer? Aside from all the subject-specific knowledge, ‘training’ in the Humanities and Arts offers an unparalleled depth of personal growth and mental diversification. The development of a student’s ability to critique systems of behaviour, work and politics ensures that individuals are able view their work (and life) situation with a clear and reflective, empathetic yet unflinching gaze.
Being able to hold and ‘apply’ multiple perspectives on a subject and really ‘feel’ the impact of those perspectives offers real-time, realistic views on potential impact and change in any given area. The student is working towards gaining an understanding of the historical, predictive, economic, social and cultural layers that are part of any given situation. It is far from easy, rather it is the equivalent of a mental Olympic sport, and no mean feat.
The training involved in developing these capacities and increasing the knowledge base behind them is not as simple as it is often made out to be. It is a lifelong pursuit in stretching understanding and increasing mental flexibility. To be able to juggle the range of incredible global and individual states and concepts is every bit as important a role as Einstein believed it to be when he is quoted in Phillip Frank’s book, Einstein: His life and times : “the value of an education in a liberal arts college is not the learning of many facts but the training of the mind to think of something that cannot be learnt from textbooks”.
Knowing oneself in relation to the micro of one’s own society and the macro of an increasingly globalised world can be applied to the job market as well as to the after dinner discussion.
To be able to holistically, empathically, and with humanity, understand the multiple situations and issues that humanity faces, and to be able to address them from a standpoint that is complementary with the STEM point of view will always be valuable. The Arts and Humanities offer us more than ‘just’ problem solving, they offer us the movie reel, as well as the means and the reasons for creating the necessary artefact.
Locating the human self in the midst of the need for new technology and adapted processes is a way of ensuring that the species stays positively anchored in more than just a physical, practical way. What does it mean to be human without the arts? Considering a social, economic and political world without the evolving soul of humanity is merely an existence.
So, go ahead and follow the passionate pursuit of intellectual and artistic learning and see which worlds open up for you to explore. A colourful, terrible and incredible past and future of the world awaits.
To find George Enders’ book You can do anything: The Surprising Power of a “Useless Liberal Arts Education, follow this link: https://www.georgeandersbooks.com/
Follow this link to find Phillip Franks’s Einstein: his Life and Times