Did you know that false confessions are the leading case of wrongful convictions in murder cases? Or that according to the Innocence Project, 25% of wrongful convictions overturned by DNA evidence involve a false confession?
False confessions reveal a concerning aspect of the criminal justice system and the fairness of its legal processes. Research and past cases have revealed how social, psychological and systemic factors can lead to innocent people admitting to crimes they did not commit, which in turn, can lead to wrongful convictions.
In 1985, Dr Saul Kassin categorised false confessions into three types: voluntary false confessions (without external pressure); compliant false confessions (resulting from interrogation pressure) and persuaded false confessions (resulting from internalising a belief they committed the crime).
Modern interrogation techniques, such as the Reid Technique, can convince innocent suspects, through psychological pressure or fear of worse outcomes, that confessing is their best option. False evidence such as DNA tampering and bogus witness statements can also lead to individuals doubting their own recollections or innocence. Young individuals and those with disabilities or social disadvantages are at the most risk to false confession.
One high-profile instance of false confession was during the case of the Central Park Five in 1989, where five black and Latino teenagers were accused of rape and assault. The young, innocent teenagers were interrogated coercively without legal representation for hours. Despite a lack of physical evidence, they confessed and were eventually convicted. In 2002, the actual culprit was caught through conclusive DNA evidence and the five were exonerated.
Another case from 1996 involved the wrongful conviction of a police officer, Scott Hornoff. He voluntarily confessed to the murder of his friend in 1989, but later inconsistencies in his confession began to show as well as new DNA evidence pointing to the true culprit. What makes this case unusual is that Scott’s confession was voluntary, not the result of interrogation or psychological pressure.
False confessions have damaging consequences to the criminal justice system, where public trust in the process becomes eroded and true criminals remain free. Methods to help prevent them can include the compulsory recording of interrogations to ensure transparency and legitimacy. Suspects should also be entitled to proper legal representation during this process. Alternative interrogation methods could also be a way to build rapport with suspects to help decrease psychological pressure while session time limits could help to maintain their mental health.
Whether you embrace the fresh frost of winter, or feel the blues of gloomier skies, the changing seasons can impact our moods, psyche and general wellbeing more than we think. Researchers are finding more links between the climate and our social behaviours, illustrating how the impact on our lives of changing seasons is multifaceted. Let’s delve into some key findings.
Commonly known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), this form of depression is understood to be related to decreased exposure to sunlight that occurs with the coming of winter. According to Emma Young in The Psychologist (2023) two million people are affected by SAD in the UK alone. Studies into SAD found that people with this disorder may eat and sleep more, and feel less motivated and productive, while other studies found that people have higher levels of serotonin in the brain during summer, and lower levels during the winter. This substantiates that colder, darker weather, and all the associated environmental changes, can negatively impact people’s psyches.
While colder weather may cause peoples’ moods to plunge, warmer weather is thought to increase irritability and the chances of violence (Young, 2023). Research into violent crime rates in Philadelphia in the US found that violence increased by 9% on hotter days, while other studies demonstrate increased rates of domestic violence and disordered prisoner behaviour during summer months. What makes this more concerning is the planet’s rise in temperatures which researchers Andreas Miles-Novelo and Craig Anderson in particular, are focused on. The rising temperature of the planet could, according to them, lead to several thousand more serious assaults in the US each year (Young, 2023).
Similarly to animals who hibernate in the winter and store additional calories to prepare for food scarcity, it is thought that humans experience similar urges, too. During autumn and winter, people are more likely to consume more calories and gain weight, and become less physically active. While we might feel this is simply because we’re deterred by the cold and seek comforting food, researchers believe biological mechanisms may be responsible. One study even suggested that warmer weather can make us feel fuller with fewer calories, when compared to a colder day.
In Ian Hohm’s (2023) research on the topic, he found that during December, the ‘Christmas Effect’ makes people more charitable, which is also reflected across other cultures and religions when religious events take place. Conversely, Hohm also highlights that Christmas intensifies feelings of loneliness or anxiety, while managing costs during this period also increases levels of stress.
However, the growing gloom doesn’t always cast shade over our mood and behaviour. Hohm and his colleagues observed that greenish-yellow colours are associated with autumn leaves, and these colours are preferred during the autumn. While research in Belgium found that healthy young people’s ability to sustain attention and memory was better during winter than summer.
So, it seems that variations in the weather impact human psychology in a major way. Hohm and his fellow researchers now understand the importance of timing when data is collected and how the season may impact the results. Hohm (2023) states that ‘Rather than remaining an overlooked source of noise in the database of the psychological sciences, seasonal variation can instead be systematically documented as a key source of signal – a fundamental feature of human psychology,’.
References
Hohm, Ian. (2023) Homo temporus: Seasonal Cycles as a Fundamental Source of Variation in Human Psychology. Source: Homo temporus: Seasonal Cycles as a Fundamental Source of Variation in Human Psychology – Ian Hohm, Alexandra S. Wormley, Mark Schaller, Michael E. W. Varnum, 2024
Varnum, Michael E. W. (2023) How the Seasons Affect Our Psychology in Psychology Today. Source: How the Seasons Affect Our Psychology | Psychology Today.
Young, Emma (2023). Seasons and the psyche in The Psychologist. Source: The British Psychological Society Seasons and the psyche | BPS.
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Attachment styles effect everything in our lives, from our friendships and romantic relationships to workplace interactions. Understanding a person’s attachment style can be an indicator of their relationship satisfaction and communication style as well as a predictor of future physical and mental health.
Attachment styles depict the way emotional bonds are formed between individuals, especially in intimate relationships and are often passed down through family generations. They stem from the early childhood bonds with a primary caregiver, such as a parent or guardian, and influence how future relationships are formed. The concept of attachment styles was first introduced by John Bowlby in 1969 and was later expanded on by Mary Ainsworth using an assessment technique called Strange Situation Classification. Some research suggests that genetics and cultural expectations can also play a role in attachment style development.
The four attachment styles are: secure, anxious, avoidant-dismissive and disorganised. Secure attachment styles are characterised by individuals who are empathetic, able to set boundaries and feel safe within close relationships. Their relationships tend to be long-lasting and healthy. As an infant, their primary caregiver was engaged and met both physical and emotional needs. Anxious attachment styles are characterised by neediness, low self-esteem and a craving for emotional intimacy. The primary caregiver relationship may have been inconsistent, moving between engaged and unavailable parenting.
The avoidant-dismissive attachment style is the opposite to the anxious style, where the individual finds emotional intimacy difficult and is often independent. Their primary caregiver was most likely unavailable to meet their emotional needs. The disorganised attachment style stems from a high level of fear, often as a result of childhood trauma and can lead to mental health disorders in later life. Their primary caregiver may have been dealing with unresolved trauma themselves, acting as both a source of comfort and fear.
Attachment styles are not permanent and can shift from secure to insecure styles and vice-versa. For example, life altering events and traumatic incidences in later life can lead to the adoption of insecure behaviours. On the other hand, insecure individuals can become aware of their behaviours and beliefs and make conscious efforts to address underlying causes. This can include analysing the root of childhood issues or surrounding themselves with individuals who already have a secure attachment style.
As research continues, future advances in technology such as brain imaging can help identify neural circuits that contribute to attachment behaviours. Societal changes such as the growing trend of online digital networking and differing cultural norms, parenting practices and societal structures may all have an influence on future emotional attachment connections and must be explored further to understand their impact.
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Consumer behaviours are often complex, involving many factors that contribute to the decision-making process. By understanding the psychology behind this process, marketers can tailor advertising to their target audience on a more personal level, while ensuring their products meet their consumer’s needs.
Before making a purchase, consumers move through a series of stages: recognising a problem, searching for information, evaluating the alternatives and finally making the purchase. A number of psychological factors influence consumer decisions at each of these stages.
A consumer will make decisions based on how they are feeling. In fact, around 86% of our purchase decisions are influenced by our emotions as we aim to meet a subconscious need or desire. For example, positive emotions can lead to spontaneous purchases and impulse buys while negative emotions such as fear can lead to safety purchases or sticking to familiar brands. Advertisers can use emotional triggers to create a strong connection with their brand.
As a consumer, our choices are heavily influenced by our culture and by other people such as our friends and family. Traditions, societal norms and shared beliefs are an important part of a consumer’s choice to buy and ‘fit in’ with social expectations. If we are uncertain about a choice, we are more likely to go with a product that has been given social proof by people we trust. Marketers can use influential celebrities or customer reviews to help reassure consumers and create this sense of trust.
Learned biases can affect our judgements on a subconscious level, influencing our shopping habits, brand loyalty and consumer behaviour. We are often presented with so much choice and information when deciding on a product that our brains often take short-cuts to make the process faster. During heuristic decision making, consumers usually agree that higher-priced items are often perceived as having higher quality, thereby lowering the risk of bad decision. Customers also tend to stick with familiar or popular brands when feeling indecisive.
Research shows a consumer will prioritise their decisions based on a company’s ethical standing, and this is especially true with millennials and generation Z. Consumers are now considering other criteria such as human rights, environmental approaches and sustainable practices when choosing a brand and businesses have realised that demonstrating these desirable values helps to foster trust and life-long customers. A phenomenon known as conspicuous ethics has become more prominent in recent decades, where the consumer is willing to pay more for a product for the feeling of superior ethical responsibility.
Nowadays, it is very easy for the consumer to gain access to information and values about a brand or product. Businesses must continually adapt to evolving needs as their customers become more discerning and their decision-making priorities change.
2023 saw ChatGPT equipping the masses with ground-breaking AI capabilities and functionality, but also introduced the concerning reality of AI-generated content, bringing with it the risks of AI plagiarism from both students and professionals. As a result, “ChatGPT” emerged as the breakout word of 2023, but “Deepfake” appears poised to claim that title in 2024. Deepfake extends beyond plagiarism, encompassing the creation of highly realistic yet fraudulent videos or images of influential individuals using AI tools. These deceptive creations are then maliciously disseminated across the internet, social media and even television platforms for political or commercial gains.
Previously relegated to the realms of tech journalism and cyber-security, the Taylor Swift deepfake scandal at the onset of the year propelled deepfake into the mainstream spotlight, even garnering attention from the periodical, The Scientific American. Millions of fans found themselves deceived or nearly deceived by deepfake Taylor Swift advertisements, thrusting the issue into public consciousness, and prompting widespread concern over the issue.
Fortunately, many deepfakes are discernibly fabricated, intentionally crafted for comedic or illustrative purposes, as seen in examples like the Seinfeld Pulp Fiction mashup or the Morgan Freeman impersonation. Moreover, vigilant users typically identify and flag inconspicuous deepfakes swiftly, mitigating the risk of widespread deception. However, amidst the flurry of crucial elections of global political figures this year, the spectre of deepfake-driven political propaganda looms large. Consequently, media organisations, which play a pivotal role in disseminating global news, are intensifying their efforts to detect deepfakes.
A recent example of this proactive stance around ungenuine images is the Princess of Wales’s doctored photo, which was uncovered via hyper-vigilant deepfake detection protocols within media outlets responsible for distributing the Royal’s Mother’s Day family picture. While this incident was innocent, such detection measures may prove indispensable in identifying nefarious uses of deepfakes for commercial and political manipulation in 2024.
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Okay, so I am sat at my desk staring out of my window at the grey clouds on the horizon. Before I know it, time has passed. What have I achieved? Have I been lazy? Well, actually, no, I haven’t. In fact, I have been thinking, and having time to think is something we often feel guilty for. Our lives are busy, and we feel that we should fill every moment with action. But if you stop to think for a while, the benefits can be huge.
Now, you might be thinking (get it): this is weird. Why do I need time to think? Well, for nearly 100 years, World Thinking Day has been recognised on 22nd February each year. In fact, all across the world, Girl Guides and Girl Scouts organisations show their appreciation for others by thinking about global situations and how others can be helped. You might be wondering why it is specifically the 22nd of February? Well, it is the birthday of Lord Robert Baden-Powell, the Scouting and Guiding founder. Coincidentally, his wife, Lady Olave Baden-Powell, shared the same birthday – so this day celebrates her life, too, and what she stood for.
World Thinking Day used to be just Thinking Day – right up until 1999 when at the 30th World Conference, held in Ireland, the word ‘World’ was added to give the day the much-needed global focus. Nowadays, many Scouting and Guiding groups around the world raise money for worthwhile causes – and all the while this annual day is celebrated with a special theme. Past examples included thinking about water and food. But this year the theme is Our World, Our Thriving Future: The environment and global poverty. It does not mean that this is only a theme for the 22nd of February, of course. Instead, it draws attention to the day and encourages people to spend time thinking about how others can be helped.
Different ways of recognising this special day take place around the world. An example in New Zealand involves rangers climbing Mount Eden before it gets light – and the people who attend spend time thinking about how they are going to help others in less fortunate positions than themselves. Some groups are twinned and they spend time thinking about helping each other. Others focus on writing each other postcards or letters.
So, even though World Thinking Day has its roots in the Guiding and Scouting movement, there is no reason why all of us couldn’t spend a bit more time thinking – not just on 22 February but every day. Who knows where a thought might take you?
Education usually requires a great deal of thinking. If you would like to apply some to the study of an academic subject, Oxford Open Learning offer a variety of courses for study at various levels. You can see which ones are available by going to our home page here. Our Contact page can also be found here.
In an age where our real-world existence seamlessly intertwines with our digital lives, understanding the psychology of cyberspace has become more crucial than ever. The virtual realm, or cyberspace, is a labyrinthine landscape where our online identities take shape, thrive, and often diverge from our offline personas. This duality of existence in both the physical and digital world raises questions about the human psyche, the creation of online identities, and the impact they have on our well-being. The online realm has now become a hub for people to craft alternative personas. The concept of having multiple digital identities is not new, but its surge in public profligacy is. So what drives this phenomenon?
One key psychological factor is the ability to curate the image we present online. We are drawn to the allure of reinvention, allowing us to project the best versions of ourselves or even explore facets of our personality that might be suppressed offline.
The pursuit of likes, shares, and viral fame also plays a significant role. The online world rewards attention and validation, and individuals may experiment with personas to appeal to a broader audience. This desire for affirmation can blur the lines between authenticity and fabrication, prompting a person to portray idealised versions of themselves which might be far from reality.
However, the psychological impact of this online identity creation is not without consequence. Online identity confusion can lead to feelings of detachment, anxiety, and even identity crises. The stark contrast between the curated online self and the authentic offline self can create a sense of disconnection. This phenomenon has prompted researchers to explore the concept of “impression management,” where individuals actively control and manipulate their digital image to influence how others perceive them.
The virtual realm’s ability to offer anonymity, on the other hand, has led to a surge in online disinhibition. Some individuals are more inclined to exhibit behaviours they might otherwise restrain from in face-to-face interactions. The absence of physical consequences allows for greater expression, but it also opens the door to cyberbullying, trolling, and the spread of hate speech.
The psychology of cyberspace also extends to how we interact with AI and potentially, humanoid robots. The Uncanny Valley theory suggests that as a robot’s appearance and behaviour become more human-like, our emotional response shifts from empathy to discomfort. This eerie feeling has significant implications for AI developers and designers, who must navigate the delicate balance between creating robots that are both relatable and non-threatening.
In conclusion, the psychology of cyberspace is a labyrinth of complexities, where the creation of online identities intersects with the desire for validation, reinvention, and self-expression. The pursuit of digital fame and the consequences of online disinhibition are critical areas of study in understanding our digital behaviour. As technology continues to advance, so too will the intricacies of our relationship with cyberspace. Exploring the impact of online identities and the intersection of real and virtual selves provides a fascinating journey into the depths of human psychology in the digital age.
You might be lucky enough to be reading this blog on Alfred Hitchcock’s birthday – 13th August. Now, if you don’t know who Alfred Hitchcock is, read on – and even if you have heard of him, I am hopeful this article will help you fill in the gaps in your knowledge a bit more.
Alfred Hitchcock (pictured above in 1925) was born in London in 1899. However, much of his professional life was spent living in America, where he was very well known for producing and directing films, particularly in the genres of psychological thriller or horror (check the certificate!) . You may well have heard of some of them: The Birds, Psycho, Rear Window… and the list goes on. Hitchcock was known as a master of suspense by many and his films – there are over 50 that he directed – and still considered to be classics to this day.
Many famous actors starred in Hitchcock’s films and if you watch more than one of them, you may well spot some familiar faces – actors like Cary Grant and James Stewart. Hitchcock himself appears in several of his own films, often in cameo roles. So, if you blink, you might miss him – then you’ll have to re-watch the film!
Some of the films were inspired by stories – The Birds, for example, was a story written by Daphne Du Maurier. Rebecca, too, was – and still is – a very much-loved novel by the same writer. Psycho used a novel written by Robert Bloch, in 1959, as its main inspiration. As you may well know, books are often better than films (as an English teacher, I’m biased, obviously!) but in Hitchcock’s case, his films are often on a par with the original story or book. Why don’t you read the text first, then watch the film – this will help you to make up your own mind!
We’re in the middle of our summer and it is likely you will have more time than when you are back studying. How about spending some of the remaining weeks reading a bit more about Hitchcock? His films won 6 Oscars over the course of his career – but amazingly, never for Best Director, which to many is shocking. It just goes to show even when you can be so, so good at something, someone else can be just a little bit better.
So, there you have it – if you didn’t know much about Alfred Hitchcock, now you do. I hope it inspires you to find out more about this amazing man’s work.
Perfectionism is not, in and of itself, a negative trait. Perfectionists are often conscientious high achievers; our greatest weakness is also our greatest strength. But those trying to be constantly perfect can find that every task feels like an unconquerable burden and every essay a path to failure, however unlikely our friends and family might find our doom-laden predictions. Here are three thoughts to use to beat the unrealistic idealism that may currently be beating you.
What is perfect, anyway? Maybe you could decide. Perhaps perfection could simply mean sitting down at your messy desk, ignoring the clothes on the floor, and spending 10 minutes planning the first half of your essay. In this deeply imperfect and challenging world, if you were to be reasonable with yourself, your definition of perfect should, and could, be different. Redefine perfection: make it doable and make it your own.
A to-do list is a depressing sight, if, at every item, we are telling ourselves that we ‘have to’ or ‘must’ do this or that. But turn ‘have to’ into ‘get to’ and suddenly life seems more joyful. Perhaps it is an irritating piece of advice, an unwelcome call to simply have more gratitude, but studying is essentially an overwhelmingly positive thing. You are learning and growing, and you have access to great materials and educated teachers; you are lucky. And so, even if it feels at first like you are lying to yourself, tell yourself, next time you inspect your to-do list: “I get to plan my essay today”.
We will do it, but we are waiting for the perfect time when we are in the mood. Because we know we can do it well, and not just well but REALLY well. And so that is the aim. This isn’t laziness, for the fear is real: we cannot bear to submit anything less than our best; we cannot tolerate failure; and we want to be proud of what we have achieved. We have visualised (or we think we have) the perfect essay or assignment. But the truth is that you have a deadline. Perhaps you could achieve perfection if you had eternity to complete it. But you don’t. Most tasks have a timeline, whether it is 6 years to complete a part-time PhD, or one night to finish an essay. And the test is not what you can achieve, but what you can achieve in the time you have to complete it. The definition of perfect might simply be this: finished.
Democracy, the cornerstone of modern governance, faces unprecedented challenges in what we are coming to call the post-truth era. As a spread of misinformation, disinformation, and polarisation intensifies, so the foundations of democratic systems are tested. However, amidst these challenges, there are also opportunities to reinforce democratic values, promote critical thinking, and strengthen the relationship between citizens and institutions.
The advent of social media and digital platforms has facilitated a rapid dissemination of false information, leading to a crisis of trust and undermining of the democratic process. Misinformation and disinformation campaigns manipulate public opinion, erode confidence in institutions, and sow division among citizens. Addressing this challenge requires a multi-faceted approach involving media literacy programs, fact-checking initiatives, and responsible journalism to counter the spread of false narratives.
The post-truth era has fuelled polarisation, with individuals increasingly retreating into echo chambers that reinforce only their existing beliefs and biases. This fragmentation of society undermines the democratic ideal of open and constructive dialogue. To counteract this, it is essential to foster spaces for respectful discourse, promote empathy, and encourage citizens to engage with diverse perspectives. Platforms that encourage civil discussions and bridge ideological divides can play a vital role in revitalising democratic participation.
The erosion of trust currently eating into our democratic institutions poses a significant challenge. When citizens lose faith in their governments, they may disengage from the political process or resort to extreme ideologies. Building and maintaining trust requires transparency, accountability, and a commitment to addressing their concerns. Strengthening mechanisms for citizen participation, such as community dialogues and participatory decision-making processes, can foster greater trust and legitimacy in democratic systems.
Today, media integrity and responsibility are also more paramount than ever. Journalistic standards, fact-checking practices, and editorial accountability all play a critical role in countering the spread of misinformation. Media organisations need to prioritise accuracy, provide context, and emphasise responsible reporting. Collaborations between media outlets, fact-checking organisations, and social media platforms can help to curb the influence of false information and ensure that accurate and reliable sources are readily accessible to citizens.
Educating citizens in critical thinking and digital literacy is essential to navigate the complexities of the post-truth era. Teaching people to discern reliable sources, evaluate information critically, and separate fact from fiction empowers them to make informed decisions and actively engage in democratic processes. Integrating media literacy and critical thinking into the educational curriculum will equip future generations with the tools necessary to navigate the information landscape responsibly.
The challenges posed by this post-truth era demand a concerted effort to safeguard democratic values. While the proliferation of misinformation, polarisation, and dwindling trust in institutions does present significant obstacles, there are also opportunities for positive change. By promoting media integrity, strengthening citizen participation, fostering critical thinking, and leveraging digital platforms responsibly, societies can navigate the complexities of our trying times and reinforce democratic principles. Ensuring the transparency, accountability, and resilience of democratic institutions is crucial to building trust, promoting inclusive dialogue, and upholding the fundamental tenets of democracy in an ever-evolving information landscape.