Three blockbuster movies have addressed these questions in recent times: Deep Impact with Robert Duvall, Armageddon with Bruce Willis, and Don’t Look Up with Leonardo DiCaprio. These films fantasise that in the event of a planet-killing asteroid heading our way, NASA or some United Nations-coordinated space force could blow it up and save the planet. But what’s the reality?
Faced with such a situation, would we be sitting ducks, or could anything be done to prevent it just like in a movie (And in only one of those mentioned were we entirely successful)? Well, this would be a two-step process. The first step would be successfully deploying a nuclear warhead into an asteroid, and the second step would be to generate an explosion big enough to obliterate it.
We know step one is possible because NASA has successfully demonstrated proof of concept by launching and smashing a spacecraft into the asteroid Didymos as part of the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART). They were not attempting to blow it up, however. In fact, they ignored the nuclear explosion option altogether and elected to try the kamikaze approach to try and push it off course. DART seeks to develop a method to protect Earth in the case of an asteroid threat, which in this case involves shifting an asteroid’s orbit through kinetic impact, which they did successfully.
So, we know it’s possible to deploy a nuke into an asteroid belt, but would it generate an explosion big enough to obliterate it? Experts suggest that we could generate a nuclear explosion big enough to destroy a small asteroid, but not really one sure to pose an existential threat. It is asteroids larger than 6.2 miles across that are a concern, as they are considered extinction class and would destroy all life on Earth in the event of a collision. The issue here is that we don’t have nuclear bombs big enough to wipe out these mega-asteroids. A NASA report suggests that a nuke would most likely cause an asteroid of this size to fragment into several large pieces, which could still cause significant damage to our planet.
This brings us back to DART. While nuclear bombs could conceivably be used to destroy smaller asteroids, it’s likely that planetary defence strategists would look to deflect the course of planet-killing asteroids away using kinetic impact, as in the DART example. In any scenario, the goal would be course deflection.
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Have you ever looked up at the sky and marvelled at aeroplanes, defying gravity and soaring through the clouds? We take the wonder of flight for granted much of the time, unless, of course, we are flying through heavy turbulence. But, behind the seemingly effortless motion of these aircraft lies a complex interplay of four forces: lift, weight, thrust and drag, that enable them to take off, manoeuvre and stay aloft.
Lift is the aerodynamic force that must be generated to overcome the weight of an aircraft, allowing it to take off and rise. It is generated primarily by the wings of the aircraft as it moves through the air. The shape of the wings, known as aerofoils, creates a pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces. This pressure difference results in an upward force, lifting the aircraft against the pull of gravity. Tilting the wing upwards deflects the air downward, creating more lift, and is used to help the plane climb, and vice versa!
Weight is the gravitational force exerted on an aircraft due to its mass. It acts downward towards the centre of the Earth and is equal to the mass of the aircraft multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity (F=mg). For an aircraft to achieve flight, the lift generated by its wings must equal or exceed its weight.
Thrust is the force that propels an aircraft forward through the air. It is generated by engines or propulsion systems such as propellers or jet turbines which expel air or gases and generate thrust that overcomes drag (defined next), causing the aircraft to accelerate and maintain its speed.
Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes the motion of an aircraft through the air. It is caused by the friction between the aircraft’s surfaces and the air molecules it encounters.
These four forces combine to create and maintain flight in two stages. Firstly, during takeoff, the thrust provided by the engines accelerates the aircraft, allowing it to reach a speed at which lift generated by the wings exceeds the aircraft’s weight, enabling it to ascend into the sky. Then, when a plane is in steady, level flight, the four forces of flight are in a state of equilibrium. The lift generated by the wings balances the weight of the aircraft, while thrust overcomes drag to maintain forward motion.
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To mark British Science Week, from the 8th to the 17th of March, let’s shine a light on some of the greatest contemporary British minds in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (or STEM, for short).
Sue Black is a Professor of Computer Science at Durham University. An outspoken and active social media campaigner, Sue led a campaign to save Bletchley Park and is one of the most influential women in tech. An advocate for equality, diversity, and inclusion, particularly for women in computing, she founded BSCWomen, an online network for women in tech, and #techmums, a social enterprise which empowers mothers and their families through technology. In the 2016 New Year Honours, Sue received an OBE for services to technology.
Timothy Berners-Lee is a computer scientist and software engineer who is most famous for inventing Hypertext Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, and the World Wide Web. He also created the first internet browser, the HTML language, and the URL system, and in 1991 was named one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century by Time Magazine. In 2004, Timothy was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, and he now works as Professor of Computer Science at the University of Oxford. He is also a professor emeritus at the renowned Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Often referred to as MIT).
Maggie Aderin-Pocock is a space scientist, educator, and communicator. Throughout her career, she has worked on some of the most prestigious projects at some of the UK’s top universities and is currently an honorary research associate within the Department of Physics and Astronomy at University College London and Chancellor at the University of Leicester. She is also a presenter of the TV show The Sky at Night and does much outreach work to engage young people in science. Her academic work now focuses on building instruments and equipment to aid the fight against climate change. Maggie received an MBE for services to science education in 2009 – an honour that was upgraded to OBE in this year’s New Year Honours.
Donald Palmer is an Associate Professor of Immunology at the Royal Veterinary College where his current research interests focus on the ageing of the immune system. After completing his PhD at King’s College London, he took post-doctoral fellowship positions at Cancer Research UK and Imperial College where he carried out research on lymphocyte development. Donald is also a co-founder of the Reach Society – an initiative to inspire, encourage and motivate young people, particularly young Black men and boys, to achieve their full potential.
Roma Agrawal is a structural engineer who is most known for her work on The Shard in London. Born in Mumbai, she completed her undergraduate degree in physics at the University of Oxford and gained an MSc in structural engineering from Imperial College London. She has gained several awards for her work, including the Institute of Structural Engineers’ Structural Engineer of the Year’ award in 2011 and, more recently, the Royal Academy of Engineering’s ‘Rooke Award for Public Promotion of Engineering’. She is an active public speaker and advocate for diversity and inclusion within STEM.
Saiful Islam is Professor of Materials Modelling at the University of Oxford. He gained a chemistry degree and PhD from University College London and his research interests focus on gaining a deeper understanding of the processes that exist within energy materials, particularly batteries. As well as numerous academic awards and honours, Saiful holds a Guinness World Record for the highest voltage lemon battery (usually a low powered, simple battery used for the purposes of education).
To learn about more successful British scientists, visit the Inspiring Scientists website.
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The Doppler effect is likely something you’ve experienced, even if you’ve never heard of it. Perhaps you noticed the sirens of an ambulance change pitch as it passed you by. The Doppler Effect was named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who first described the phenomenon in 1842 and is most widely associated with sound waves although the principle applies to all wave forms such as light and radio waves.
It has played a significant part in many scientific areas such as astronomy and medicine and has even been used as evidence for explaining the big bang theory and expansion of the universe.
All forms of waves have a particular frequency, which is the number of waves reaching an observer over a given time. It’s this frequency that determines the pitch of a sound. In technical terms, this effect happens because of the perceived alteration in frequency and wavelength of a wave, brought about by the relative motion between the wave source and the observer.
Taking the case of sound waves from an ambulance moving towards you, waves emitted in front of the vehicle are compressed, increasing the frequency which in turn increases the pitch of the sound. As the ambulance passes you by the waves expand and the frequency drops, leading to a lower pitch. As the passengers on the ambulance are travelling at the same speed as the sirens, they hear the sound at it’s true, unaltered pitch.
You may have seen police using speed guns to track the velocity of vehicles or the tracking system that measures the speed of a served tennis ball. Both systems work in the same way, using specialised radar equipment to send out a narrow stream of radio waves. Some of these waves bounce back off the ball/vehicle and are received back by the emitter. A computer system then calculates the velocity of the object by working out the time between the pulses sent out and the pulses received.
This same principle has played a revolutionary role in astronomy, where the study of changes in light frequency by celestial objects has helped to determine their speed of travel as well as their chemical compositions. Meteorologists use the Doppler effect to predict future weather patterns and track their changes through Doppler radar systems which analyse shifts in the frequency of electromagnetic pulses.
The Doppler effect has also allowed major advancements within the field of medicine, such as the introduction of ultrasound technology. During ultrasound scans, a small device emits high-frequency sound waves that are far beyond our normal audio range. They reflect off different parts of the body and are picked up by the probe and turned into a visual image. This way, parents can see an image of their unborn baby, while a surgeon can see a visual aid while navigating an internal procedure.
Doctors are also able to measure blood flow through a patient’s blood vessels with the use of a specialised Doppler ultrasound. By focusing the sound waves on the red blood cells, doctors can determine the existence of blood clots, heart defects or blocked arteries.
The Doppler effect continues to inspire scientific research and further technological advancements will increase its effectiveness in everyday usage. It is likely to play a future role in collision avoidance systems in autonomous vehicles, wireless communications and space exploration.
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Amid the history of space travel, one space probe has achieved the status of human-made-object to have ventured furthest from Earth. Indeed, Voyager 1, launched by NASA in 1977, still continues its awe-inspiring journey beyond our solar system, carrying with it a golden record containing sounds and images representing the diversity of life on our planet. In this article, we embark on our own voyage of discovery, as we explore the remarkable achievements and ongoing odyssey of Voyager 1.
Voyager 1’s primary mission was to conduct close-up studies of Jupiter and Saturn, two gas giants that had fascinated astronomers for centuries. During its flybys of these giant planets, Voyager 1 captured stunning images and collected invaluable scientific data, revealing the intricate details of their atmospheres, moons, and rings. These discoveries revolutionised our understanding of these distant worlds, unravelling their mysteries and further igniting our curiosity about the wonders of our own cosmic environment.
However, Voyager 1’s journey didn’t end with the exploration of Jupiter and Saturn. Propelled by gravity-assist manoeuvres, it then embarked onward on an epic trajectory known as the Voyager Interstellar Mission. Recently, it actually left the confines of our solar system, fulfilling its objective. Hence, Voyager 1 became the first human-made object to enter interstellar space, where the influence of our Sun gives way to the vastness of the Milky Way galaxy. In around 40, 000 years, if it has not met with any accident, it will pass another star, Gilese 445 (photographed and ringed in red above), albeit at a distance of 1.6 light years.
As Voyager 1 ventures deeper into interstellar space, it continues to communicate with Earth, transmitting valuable data about its surroundings. This data provides scientists with insights into the interstellar medium, the space between stars, and offers glimpses into the conditions and dynamics of the cosmic environment that surrounds us. The probe carries instruments that measure cosmic rays, magnetic fields, and plasma, helping us to better understand the nature of our galactic neighbourhood.
One of the most captivating aspects of Voyager 1’s mission is on the Golden Record it carries. This record is a time capsule, curated by a team led by astrophysicist Carl Sagan, that contains sounds and images that portray the diversity of life on Earth. The intention behind the Golden Record is to serve as a message from humanity to any potential extraterrestrial civilisations that may encounter the spacecraft. It encapsulates the essence of our planet and our shared human experiences, offering a glimpse into the rich tapestry of life here.
Voyager 1’s journey is a testament to human ingenuity, perseverance, and the insatiable desire to explore the unknown. It has withstood the test of time, surpassing all expectations and continuing to push the boundaries of our understanding. While its instruments will eventually cease operating, it will still continue on its trajectory through the vastness of space, carrying with it a symbol of our curiosity, our aspirations, and our yearning for connection with the wider cosmos.
From its groundbreaking flybys of Jupiter and Saturn to its current foray into interstellar space, this intrepid spacecraft has forever changed our understanding of the cosmos. It reminds us that the wonders of the universe are within our reach and that our human spirit will continue to explore and reach for the stars, even when our physical presence can no longer accompany these extraordinary machines.
Physics is often thought of as a complex and abstract science, reserved for laboratories and theoretical discussions. However, the truth is that it is all around us, governing the everyday phenomena we often take for granted. From the simple act of making a cup of tea to the intricacies of the natural world, physics plays a significant role in shaping our daily experiences.
One of the most relatable areas of physics is thermodynamics, the science of heat and energy transfer. When you boil water for your morning tea, the physics of thermodynamics is in action. As the heat source is applied to the kettle, the molecules within the water begin to vibrate faster, raising the temperature. Once the water reaches its boiling point, the molecules transition from liquid to gas, creating the familiar bubbling effect. This phase change requires a release of energy in the form of steam. Understanding these processes allows us to control them, making that perfect cup of tea or cooking a delicious meal.
Another fundamental physics concept we encounter daily is the study of motion and forces. Think about the simple act of walking. When you take a step, you apply a force to the ground, and according to Newton’s third law of motion, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force on your foot, propelling you forward. This is the science that keeps us moving and helps engineers design everything from cars to roller coasters.
Electromagnetism is another vital branch of physics which we interact with constantly. It is responsible for everything from the lights that brighten our rooms to the electrical devices we rely on. The principles of electromagnetism explain how electric charges generate magnetic fields and vice versa, enabling the technology that powers our modern lives.
Then there’s the physics of sound. When you listen to music on your headphones, you’re experiencing the science of waves and vibrations. Sound waves travel through the air, reach your ear, and cause your eardrum to vibrate. These vibrations are then translated into electrical signals that your brain interprets as music or speech. Understanding sound waves has led to incredible developments in audio technology and our ability to communicate.
Physics isn’t just about understanding natural phenomena; it also provides solutions to real-world problems. For instance, the study of fluid dynamics helps us design more efficient transportation systems, while the principles of structural mechanics ensure that buildings are safe and sturdy. The field of material science, an offshoot of physics, leads to the development of new materials that improve our daily lives, from lightweight and durable smartphone screens to advanced medical implants.
In essence, physics is not confined to the laboratory or the classroom. It is a part of our daily existence, shaping how we experience the world. Whether you’re making breakfast, taking a walk, or listening to your favourite music, you’re engaging with the fundamental principles of physics. Understanding these concepts allows us to appreciate the science behind the everyday phenomena we often overlook, and it reminds us that the universe is governed by an elegant and intricate set of rules that apply even to the simplest aspects of our lives.
The universe is a vast and mysterious place, filled with wonders that extend far beyond that which meets the eye. While our senses are limited to perceiving the visible spectrum of light, there are hidden realms and phenomena that lie beyond our direct perception. Scientists and researchers have developed ingenious ways to explore these unseen realms, unravelling the secrets of the universe and expanding our understanding of reality.
One of the most captivating unseen realms of the universe is the realm of the invisible particles. Subatomic particles, such as neutrinos and dark matter, do not interact with light in the same way as ordinary matter. They pass through our bodies, planets, and even galaxies without leaving a trace. However, through sophisticated detectors and experiments, scientists have been able to indirectly observe their existence and study their properties. The discovery of neutrino oscillation, for example, was a groundbreaking achievement that shed light on the mysterious behaviour of these elusive particles.
The realm of the invisible also extends to the world of electromagnetic radiation beyond the visible spectrum. While we can see the colours of the rainbow, there are other wavelengths of light that remain hidden from our eyes. X-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves are just a few examples of the broad electromagnetic spectrum that scientists have been able to explore using specialised instruments and telescopes. By capturing and analysing these invisible wavelengths, researchers have untraveled the secrets of black holes, studied distant galaxies, and probed the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Another unseen realm that scientists are delving into is the hidden dimensions of space. The concept of extra dimensions beyond the familiar three spatial dimensions and one dimension of time is mind-boggling. Theoretical frameworks, such as string theory, propose the existence of extra dimensions that are too small to be detected by our current technology. However, scientists continue to explore the mathematical intricacies of these hidden dimensions, seeking to unify the fundamental forces of nature and unlock the mysteries of the cosmos.
Beyond the visible, astronomers have also discovered the presence of dark energy, a mysterious force driving the accelerated expansion of the universe. Dark energy, which cannot be directly observed or measured, constitutes a significant portion of the universe’s energy density. Its existence was inferred through careful observations of distant supernovae and the large-scale structure of the cosmos. Understanding the nature of dark energy remains one of the most pressing questions in modern cosmology.
The exploration of these unseen realms requires not only advanced technology but also theoretical frameworks and mathematical models. Scientists push the boundaries of knowledge by developing innovative techniques, designing cutting-edge instruments, and formulating bold hypotheses. They collaborate across disciplines and share data, striving to decipher the secrets hidden in the fabric of the universe.
As we continue to explore the unseen realms of the universe, our understanding of reality expands and deepens. The mysteries that lie beyond the visible spectrum challenge our preconceived notions and push the limits of our imagination. They remind us of the vastness of the cosmos and the endless possibilities that await our exploration.
To conclude, the universe holds hidden realms and phenomena that extend far beyond our direct perception. Through scientific inquiry, we have glimpsed invisible particles, probed the electromagnetic spectrum, contemplated the existence of hidden dimensions, and sought to unravel the nature of dark energy. The exploration of such unseen realms expands our understanding of the universe and invites us to contemplate the infinite mysteries that lie beyond the visible. And it is through the same curiosity, ingenuity, and relentless pursuit of knowledge that we will continue to push the boundaries of our understanding.
The allure of Mars has captivated the imagination of scientists and space enthusiasts for generations. As we set our sights on exploring the mysteries of the Red Planet, one of the first steps is to meticulously map its terrain and understand its unique characteristics. This process of mapping Mars not only provides valuable insights into its geological features but also unveils the potential for future exploration and the possibility of sustaining human life beyond Earth.
The Mapping of Mars is an intricate task that requires a combination of cutting-edge technology, scientific expertise, and meticulous data analysis. Through the use of satellites, orbiters, and rovers, scientists have been able to capture detailed images and collect data about Mars’ surface, topography, and atmospheric conditions. This data is then transformed into intricate maps which provide a comprehensive view of the planet’s diverse landscapes, from towering volcanoes and deep canyons to ancient riverbeds and polar ice caps.
The information derived from these maps serves as a treasure trove for scientists and engineers planning future missions to Mars. By understanding the terrain and composition of the planet, they can identify potential landing sites for spacecraft and rovers, avoiding hazardous areas and maximizing the chances of mission success. Furthermore, these maps aid in the selection of regions that hold the most promise for scientific exploration, such as sites with evidence of past water activity or locations where signs of microbial life may be found.
Mapping Mars also plays a crucial role in determining the planet’s potential for sustaining human life. By studying the distribution of resources, such as water ice deposits and mineral resources, scientists can assess the feasibility of extracting and utilizing these resources for future human missions. Additionally, mapping Mars’ atmospheric conditions and weather patterns allows us to better understand the challenges that would be faced by astronauts on the planet’s surface, including radiation exposure, extreme temperatures, and dust storms.
Moreover, mapping Mars contributes to our broader understanding of planetary formation and evolution. By studying the geological features and mapping the history of the planet’s surface, scientists can gain insights into the its past climate, the possibility of ancient water systems, and the potential for habitability. These findings not only deepen our understanding of Mars but also shed light on the broader questions about the origins of our own solar system and the potential for life beyond Earth.
In conclusion, mapping is an essential endeavour in our quest to explore the Red Planet. It provides a detailed view of its terrain, uncovers potential landing sites, and guides future scientific missions. Furthermore, these maps offer insights into the planet’s resources and its potential for sustaining human life. By mapping Mars, we are not only expanding our knowledge of this captivating world but also paving the way for future exploration and the possibility of a human presence on another celestial body.
Perfectionism is not, in and of itself, a negative trait. Perfectionists are often conscientious high achievers; our greatest weakness is also our greatest strength. But those trying to be constantly perfect can find that every task feels like an unconquerable burden and every essay a path to failure, however unlikely our friends and family might find our doom-laden predictions. Here are three thoughts to use to beat the unrealistic idealism that may currently be beating you.
What is perfect, anyway? Maybe you could decide. Perhaps perfection could simply mean sitting down at your messy desk, ignoring the clothes on the floor, and spending 10 minutes planning the first half of your essay. In this deeply imperfect and challenging world, if you were to be reasonable with yourself, your definition of perfect should, and could, be different. Redefine perfection: make it doable and make it your own.
A to-do list is a depressing sight, if, at every item, we are telling ourselves that we ‘have to’ or ‘must’ do this or that. But turn ‘have to’ into ‘get to’ and suddenly life seems more joyful. Perhaps it is an irritating piece of advice, an unwelcome call to simply have more gratitude, but studying is essentially an overwhelmingly positive thing. You are learning and growing, and you have access to great materials and educated teachers; you are lucky. And so, even if it feels at first like you are lying to yourself, tell yourself, next time you inspect your to-do list: “I get to plan my essay today”.
We will do it, but we are waiting for the perfect time when we are in the mood. Because we know we can do it well, and not just well but REALLY well. And so that is the aim. This isn’t laziness, for the fear is real: we cannot bear to submit anything less than our best; we cannot tolerate failure; and we want to be proud of what we have achieved. We have visualised (or we think we have) the perfect essay or assignment. But the truth is that you have a deadline. Perhaps you could achieve perfection if you had eternity to complete it. But you don’t. Most tasks have a timeline, whether it is 6 years to complete a part-time PhD, or one night to finish an essay. And the test is not what you can achieve, but what you can achieve in the time you have to complete it. The definition of perfect might simply be this: finished.
Throughout history, women have made significant contributions to the field of science, yet their accomplishments often remain overlooked or overshadowed. The stories of these brilliant minds have been marginalised, leading to the erasure of their names and the valuable work they accomplished. It is essential to shed light on the forgotten women of science, as their struggles, breakthroughs, and perseverance continue to inspire generations of aspiring scientists and challenge societal norms.
Ada Lovelace, the daughter of the poet Lord Byron, is often regarded as the world’s first computer programmer. In the mid-19th century, Lovelace collaborated with Charles Babbage on his Analytical Engine. Her ground-breaking insights and analytical skills led her to write the first algorithm, envisioning the potential of the machine to do more than just calculations. Lovelace’s contributions laid the foundation for modern computer programming, and her foresight earned her recognition as a pioneer in the field.
Rosalind Franklin’s work was crucial to understanding the structure of DNA, yet her name is often overshadowed by her male colleagues. Franklin’s X-ray crystallography images played a pivotal role in unravelling the double helix structure of DNA. Her data, obtained through meticulous research, was used by James Watson and Francis Crick without her permission or acknowledgment. Franklin’s invaluable contributions to genetics and molecular biology deserve recognition as they provided the key insights into the building blocks of life.
Lise Meitner (pictured) was an Austrian physicist, who made ground-breaking discoveries in nuclear physics. Together with Otto Hahn, she discovered nuclear fission, a process that releases an immense amount of energy and forms the basis of nuclear power. Despite her instrumental role, Meitner did not receive the Nobel Prize that Hahn was awarded for their work. Meitner’s contributions to nuclear physics are celebrated today, as she paved the way for significant advancements in energy production and scientific understanding.
Chien-Shiung Wu, a Chinese-American physicist, made remarkable contributions to nuclear physics and experimental research. Wu disproved the law of conservation of parity, a fundamental principle in physics, through her precision experiments. Her work shattered established notions and opened new avenues for scientific exploration. Despite her ground-breaking discoveries, Wu’s contributions were often underappreciated, highlighting the gender biases prevalent in the scientific community.
Mary Anning, an English paleontologist, made remarkable discoveries in the field of paleontology during the early 19th century. Anning unearthed numerous fossils, including the first complete skeleton of an Ichthyosaur. Despite her significant contributions, Anning faced social and gender barriers, which limited her recognition and access to scientific societies. Her pioneering work laid the foundation for the study of prehistoric life and helped shape our understanding of Earth’s history.
These forgotten women of science played pivotal roles in shaping our world through their remarkable discoveries and ground-breaking contributions. Their struggles against gender biases and societal limitations serve as reminders of the barriers women in science have faced throughout history. By acknowledging and celebrating these trailblazers, we honour their achievements and inspire future generations of scientists to challenge stereotypes, break barriers, and make meaningful contributions to the advancement of knowledge. It is crucial to rewrite the narrative of scientific history, ensuring that the remarkable stories of these women are no longer forgotten but cherished and celebrated for the inspiration they provide.