The next time you look at a world map, ask yourself, “Is this world map wrong?”. Maps are everywhere, hanging in classrooms or your home study wall and appearing on websites. But have you ever wondered if the world map you know is actually accurate?
World maps are complex representations of the Earth’s surface that involve significant compromises and distortions. The challenge arises because the Earth is a three-dimensional sphere, but maps are flat, two-dimensional representations. When translating the Earth’s curved surface onto a flat map, cartographers must decide what to keep accurate and what to distort. This has led to the creation of various map projections, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.
While it’s unlikely you use these maps in an educational environment, the Babylonians (600 BCE), Greeks (6th century BCE), and the Byzantine monk Ptolemy, (2nd century CE), used travelers’ accounts and mathematical calculations to depict the world’s basic layout, often featuring one to three continents. With more data and exploration, they could have created even more accurate maps.
However, the typical classroom map you see is likely based on the more (relatively speaking) recent Mercator projection, developed in the 16th century, informed by both historical and new knowledge from global exploration. The creation of accurate maps remained challenging, however, because full geographic information was still limited; as such, maps were built painstakingly from the notes, accounts, and observations of these explorers. Despite these limitations, the Mercator projection was revolutionary for its time because it preserved angles and directions, making it useful for navigation. However, the first Mercator maps also distorted the true sizes of continents and oceans, especially those farther from the equator.
Some notable distortions in the Mercator projection included:
Greenland, Siberia, Canada, and Antarctica appear disproportionately massive.
Greenland alone looked roughly the size of Africa, even though Africa is actually 14 times larger.
Africa appears smaller than North America, although it is, again, larger.
In contrast, the Gall-Peters projection, developed in the 19th century, was designed to preserve the relative area of land masses, offering a more accurate sense of the size of different countries. Although this projection distorts the shapes of continents, making them appear stretched or squashed, their relative sizes are more accurate, with Africa shown as larger than North America and Europe. This projection sparked political controversy, which may have limited its popularity. Other projections have since been developed to balance distortions in size, shape, and distance, but the Mercator and Gall-Peters projections remain among the best-known.
Thanks to satellite imagery and advanced technology, such as Google Maps, we now have the capability to create accurate global images. While the physical challenge of gathering geographical data has been largely overcome, today’s challenge lies in creating map projections that are politically acceptable in a complex geopolitical landscape. So, if you’re looking for a truly accurate and politically neutral view of the world, the best option may still be a globe!
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From its early beginnings, education and teaching have been a way to preserve cultural values and knowledge. Today, the education system has become more globalised, with students increasingly exposed to other cultures and views that play an important part in shaping individual identities, and how their roles fit into our modern society.
Cultural representation within curriculum subjects such as literature, history and art is important to help nurture student identities and broaden their understanding of the world. Without inclusivity, students from marginalised backgrounds may feel alienated or underrepresented which can lead to the reinforcement of inequality.
Language can have a profound impact on a student’s cultural identity, influencing how they see themselves and embrace other cultures. In countries where students’ mother tongue is taught, it helps to preserve traditions and nurtures their sense of heritage. Studies have shown that students taught in their mother tongue perform better academically at an early age. If, however, only dominant languages are used, students may face linguistic displacement that promotes the erosion of indigenous heritages.
The accounts and case studies of which cultures’ stories are told and which ones are marginalised help form an understanding of cultural histories and shape how students see their own identity. Including diversity in historical narratives can help foster empathy and understanding while a focus on individual history can lead to a singular, limited view of the world.
Globalisation, international schools and migration have led to a blending of cultures, where education which embodies multiple cultural elements can help expose students to multiple viewpoints and adopt multicultural traditions, leading to a greater global understanding.
Education is often a powerful driver for social change. New cultural movements and ideas can help shape the material taught within schools to challenge traditional views, promote equality and foster critical thinking. This provides students with the tools they need to become informed in areas of gender equality and of economic differences that can shape ideologies and create inclusive communities. An example of this can be seen in the inclusion of the recent Black Lives Matter movement in some school curricula subjects such as history and sociology. This helps to bring current and relevant issues to the forefront, to enable awareness and inspire discussions on racial inequality and modern activism.
Some of the key challenges to multicultural education lie in the fact that many curricula are rooted in dominant cultural narratives. This can sometimes be down to a lack of teacher training or resources to teach diverse classrooms, or because institutions can view multicultural initiatives as unimportant. It can be complicated to ensure that teaching materials and methods are non-biased and do not reinforce stereotypes.
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We aren’t attempt to decode all the place names in the UK here, as that’s rather impractical! Instead, let’s explore specific families of place names and what they reveal about these locations.
A logical place to start is Swindon (where I grew up), which is derived from “Swine Town” or “Pig Village.” Swindon belongs to a family of towns named after livestock that were once farmed or sold there. Oxford, for example, means a “ford for oxen,” while Hertford refers to a “ford for harts” (another word for deer). Gateshead means “Goat Promontory,” and places like Painswick are connected to the Old English word “wic,” meaning farm or dairy farm.
While Westminster is often associated with the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey is more relevant when considering the origin of the name. “Minsters,” such as Westminster, Axminster, and Kidderminster, were originally religious settlements populated by communities of clergy.
Similarly, the name Davidstow (which you might recognise from the brand of mature cheddar produced in Cornwall) doesn’t come from cheese. “Stows” were originally religious meeting sites. Davidstow, meaning “David’s Place,” was founded by Saint David in the 6th century. Other examples include Padstow, Chepstow, and Felixstowe, all of which have religious origins.
Towns ending in “mouth” (such as Plymouth, Exmouth, and Dartmouth) are named after the river mouths where they are located. Meanwhile, places named for their proximity to brooks often contain “burn” or “bourne,” as seen in Blackburn, Glyndebourne, and Winterbourne.
While many place names have Anglo-Saxon or Old English roots, Roman influence is also prevalent in England’s toponyms, (place names). The Latin word “castrum,” adopted in 5th-century Britain to denote a Roman military camp, gave rise to words like Chester, Caster, and Cester, as well as towns such as Chester, Leicester, Cirencester, Gloucester, Exeter, Lancaster, and Caister.
Norman elements in place names often indicate noble ownership. For example, King’s Lynn, Queensborough, Bishops Stortford, and Abbots Leigh were once owned by a king, queen, bishop, and abbot, respectively.
The Celts, who lived in Britain before the Romans, left a few recognizsble place names, especially in Wales and Cornwall. “Coombe” or “combe,” derived from the Celtic word “cym,” refers to a valley. Examples include Ilfracombe, Salcombe, and Crowcombe. And Wales, in its native language, is named Cymru.
Our place names provide a window into the country’s history. From farming and religious origins to Roman and Celtic connections, each name is highly informative, but of course, we are just scratching the surface.
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October half-term is the perfect time to take a break from the hustle of daily routines, enjoy autumn’s beauty, and spend quality time with family and friends. With Halloween festivities and the crisp, colourful weather, this is a great opportunity to embrace the season’s charm while keeping kids entertained. Whether you’re looking for outdoor adventures, cultural experiences, or creative indoor activities, here are some fantastic ideas to make the most of the October half-term.
Visiting a pumpkin patch is a quintessential autumn activity that kids and adults alike will enjoy. Many farms across the UK open their fields for pumpkin picking in October, offering a fun day out where you can choose the perfect pumpkin to carve for Halloween. Many pumpkin patches also host other activities, such as tractor rides, corn mazes, and petting zoos. Don’t forget to snap a few seasonal photos to capture the magic of autumn!
Top Tip: Check local farms for pre-booking requirements, as pumpkin patches can get busy during the half-term.
With the leaves turning golden and the crisp air setting in, October is one of the best months for enjoying the UK’s stunning natural landscapes. Take a trip to a nearby national park or woodland for a peaceful family hike, picnic, or wildlife spotting. Autumn is the perfect time for collecting conkers, pine cones, and colourful leaves to use in seasonal crafts later.
Where to go: The New Forest, Peak District, or Sherwood Forest are all fantastic for autumn walks.
Many attractions across the UK embrace the spooky spirit of Halloween with special events that range from family-friendly fun to haunted house experiences for older kids and teens. From ghost tours and haunted castles to pumpkin trails and fancy dress parties, there’s no shortage of ways to get into the Halloween spirit.
Where to find Halloween events: Check your local museums, stately homes, and theme parks for Halloween activities. Some, like Warwick Castle, have special Halloween experiences with spooky trails and stories.
For families with a love of outdoor sports, half-term is an excellent time to try an adventurous activity. Many outdoor centres offer everything from climbing, abseiling, and archery to paddle boarding and canoeing. Adventure parks and activity centres often run special half-term sessions where kids can learn new skills or try something new in a safe, supervised environment.
Great outdoor activity centres: Go Ape locations across the UK are ideal for tree-top climbing and zip-lining, while centres like PGL or local adventure parks offer multi-activity days.
The UK’s rich history offers a wide range of fascinating historical sites and castles to explore. Many of these places run special half-term activities for families, such as themed treasure hunts, costume days, or living history demonstrations. Visiting a castle or historic house is not only a great way to learn about history but also a chance to explore stunning grounds and gardens.
Top sites to visit: Windsor Castle, Tower of London, and Edinburgh Castle are popular, while lesser-known gems like Bodiam Castle and Kenilworth Castle often host half-term events.
If the weather isn’t on your side, a visit to a museum or science centre can provide an educational and exciting day out. Many museums across the UK offer free entry and have interactive exhibits that are perfect for children. Check if your local museum is offering any half-term workshops, craft activities, or temporary exhibitions that might pique the interest of curious minds.
Family-friendly museums: The Natural History Museum and the Science Museum in London are firm favourites, while the Eden Project in Cornwall and the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester are excellent alternatives.
For a creative day indoors, why not try some autumn-inspired arts and crafts? Leaf printing, pumpkin carving, and making Halloween decorations are great ways to get into the seasonal spirit. You can collect natural materials like leaves, acorns, and pinecones from a nearby park or forest to use in your projects. Baking Halloween-themed treats like spooky cookies or toffee apples is another way to make the day special.
Craft ideas: Make autumn wreaths, paint pine cones, or create spooky garlands to hang around the house.
Autumn is a wonderful time to see wildlife, as many animals prepare for winter. Whether you visit a wildlife reserve, zoo, or a local nature reserve, half-term is a great chance for kids to learn about nature. Many wildlife centres offer guided walks, bird-watching sessions, or even bat walks, where you can discover nocturnal creatures in a safe environment.
Top wildlife parks: Visit Longleat Safari Park or Woburn Safari Park for an exciting animal adventure, or take a quieter trip to a wildlife reserve like RSPB Minsmere or Slimbridge Wetland Centre.
Many theatres across the country put on special performances for children and families during the October half-term. Whether it’s a magical pantomime, a musical, or a puppet show, catching a live performance is a fantastic way to introduce children to the arts and enjoy a cosy afternoon together. Check your local theatre for family-friendly performances, including adaptations of popular books and films.
Theatres to watch: The West End in London offers big productions, while local theatres often have affordable, charming shows perfect for younger audiences.
Many theme parks across the UK go all out for Halloween, offering special spooky events alongside their usual rides and attractions. Some parks feature haunted mazes, scare zones, and Halloween-themed parades. These parks cater to various age groups, with milder activities for younger children and scarier thrills for teens and adults.
Theme parks to try: Alton Towers, Chessington World of Adventures, and LEGOLAND Windsor offer Halloween events perfect for a family day out.
If you’re looking for a cost-effective activity, why not create your own treasure hunt at home? You can make it Halloween-themed, with clues leading to hidden treats or spooky surprises. Tailor the difficulty to suit the age of your children, and let them solve puzzles or follow maps to find hidden treasures. This can be a brilliant way to engage their imagination and keep them entertained indoors.
For a relaxing day at home, plan a cosy movie marathon. You can theme it around Halloween with spooky-but-not-too-scary films for younger kids or pick a family-favourite series like Harry Potter. Create a cinema experience by making popcorn, dimming the lights, and letting everyone choose their favourite film.
Movie ideas: The Nightmare Before Christmas, Hocus Pocus, or Coco are great autumnal options.
October half-term offers a wonderful opportunity to enjoy the best of autumn, whether that’s embracing the season’s natural beauty, indulging in Halloween festivities, or spending quality time indoors. With a range of activities that cater to every interest and budget, there are plenty of ways to make the most of this break and create lasting memories with your family.
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October is characterised by that cosy autumnal feel. Leafy, golden-brown hues, Halloween and gradually darkening evenings all signal the changing season and oncoming winter. But the growing darkness isn’t just an occurrence of seasonal change; it’s partly the result of the long-standing, and sometimes controversial, practice of changing the clocks.
The idea of changing the time deliberately and on a national scale seems somewhat absurd, when time itself is a matter of physics. However, it’s the human measure of time which is, in fact, adjusted, in accordance with the seasons. Known as British Summer Time (BST), changing the clocks is a mechanism to capitalise on the increased summer daylight hours in the northern hemisphere. BST begins when the clocks ‘spring forward’ one hour in the spring in March, and ends in October, when the clocks ‘fall back’ by one hour.
The American statesman, inventor and scientist, Benjamin Franklin, suggested the idea of summer time in 1784, but it was British William Willet who published the pamphlet ‘The Waste of Daylight’ in 1907. He proposed daylight savings time after becoming infuriated by the waste of daylight during the summer mornings. Germany was the first country to adopt daylight savings in 1916, followed by the UK a few weeks layer. The system was soon implemented by other countries worldwide.
Since its introduction, there has been ongoing controversy surrounding the benefits of BST. British Double Summer Time was temporarily introduced during the Second World War to increase productivity, while the clocks were put forward and not put back in an experiment between 1968 and 1971, but this was discontinued. Since then, campaigners have argued that permanent BST would save energy and increase the available time in the evenings, but this was opposed by arguments that it would create social disadvantages in the North, where darker mornings would leave children travelling to school in darkness.
Overall, despite the fact that most of our homes and workspaces are well lit, regardless of daylight, the benefits of daylight savings include reducing energy consumption, longer evenings for leisure, exercise and tourism, and reducing road accidents. So, for the time being at least, British Summer Time is here to stay.
Reference
Royal Museums Greenwich. (2024), When do the clocks go forward in 2025? Source: rmg.co.uk
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In a world where adulting often feels like a never-ending series of responsibilities, there’s something wonderfully refreshing about settling down with a good children’s film. But beyond mere entertainment, recent studies have shown that these films can offer a wealth of benefits for grown-ups too. Let’s explore the science-backed reasons why watching children’s films might just be the self-care you didn’t know you needed.
Research published in the Journal of Positive Psychology found that watching nostalgic content, including children’s films, can increase feelings of well-being and life satisfaction. A 2020 study showed that 76% of adults who regularly watched children’s films reported lower stress levels and improved mood.
A study conducted by the University of Cambridge revealed that adults who watched emotionally complex children’s films showed a 15% improvement in emotional recognition and empathy skills. Films like Inside Out offer brilliant metaphors for understanding and managing our emotions, benefiting viewers of all ages.
Neurological research from the University of Southampton suggests that nostalgia, often triggered by children’s films, can have positive effects on brain function. The study found that nostalgic experiences increased activity in the areas of the brain associated with autobiographical memory and reward, potentially improving cognitive function and mood.
A survey conducted by the American Psychological Association found that 82% of adults who regularly watch children’s films reported gaining valuable life lessons and insights. From the importance of friendship in Toy Story to the power of perseverance in Finding Nemo, these films remind us of fundamental truths that we sometimes forget in the hustle and bustle of adult life.
A long-term study by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln found that families who regularly watched children’s films together reported stronger emotional connections and improved communication. The shared experience created opportunities for meaningful conversations about the themes and messages in the films.
Research published in the Creativity Research Journal showed that adults exposed to imaginative content, such as children’s films, experienced a 23% increase in creative problem-solving abilities. The whimsical worlds in these films can reignite our own creativity and inspire innovative thinking.
A 2022 study in the Journal of Health Psychology found that watching light-hearted content, including children’s films, led to a significant decrease in cortisol levels (the stress hormone) in adults. Participants reported feeling more relaxed and refreshed after viewing sessions.
The scientific evidence is clear: children’s films offer more than just entertainment for adults. They provide a unique combination of emotional, cognitive and social benefits that can significantly improve our well-being. So, the next time you’re scrolling through your streaming service, don’t shy away from the kids’ section. Embrace the magic, humour and heart of children’s cinema. You might just find it’s exactly what you need to brighten your day, soothe your soul, and remind you of the simple joys in life. After all, as Walt Disney once said, “That’s the real trouble with the world. Too many people grow up.”
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The term Solar Maximum will most likely be a hot topic in the media over the next 12 months. Despite sounding like the title of a Hollywood sci-fi apocalyptic epic, Solar Maximum simply refers to an important and scientifically fascinating real-world event.
The Solar Maximum, which is the period of peak solar activity during the sun’s approximate 11-year solar cycle will be occurring for the next 12 months.
Before we can fully understand it we need to have a greater insight into the encompassing 11-year solar cycle that the sun’s magnetic field traverses through. Roughly every 11 years, the Sun’s magnetic fields flip, and the Sun’s North and South poles switch places. But it then takes a further 11 years for the North and South Poles of the Sun to flip back again.
Scientists can track the solar cycle by using powerful telescopes (based aboard Europe’s PROBA2 Spacecraft), which enable them to count the number of Sunspots that themselves reflect magnetic activity.
When the Sun has the least sunspots, known as the Solar Minimum, we know the sun is at the start of the solar cycle. But, over time solar activity increases, (reflecting changes in the magnetic field) and the number of sunspots increases. Although slightly counterintuitive, the mid-point of the solar cycle is known as the Solar Maximum, which is now, and is when the Sun has the most sunspots.
This Solar Maximum is more than just a visual phenomenon as there is also a surge in solar flares and coronal mass ejections erupting from the Sun. As a result of these eruptions powerful bursts of energy and material are sent into space which can impact Earth. It’s these relatively harmless phenomena that Hollywood has taken and run with to create the sun-inspired apocalyptic movie genre. But these eruptions are relatively harmless, and the average person won’t know anything about it. Although the naked eye can see the end products of this increased solar activity in the form of more vivid and stronger northern (and southern) light displays. This enhanced aurora borealis and aurora australis display occurs as a result of increased geomagnetic storm activity arising due to the Solar Maximum.
These solar eruptions generate space weather which can interfere with satellite electronics, and radio communications and even impact electricity grids throughout the earth. Again, it will be the responsibility of industrial engineers to preempt and manage these electro-magnetic disturbances and again the typical person won’t know much about it.
I grew up believing that there was one dominant learning style, which was what I experienced throughout school, university, and the early years of my career—auditory learning. In traditional educational settings, this typically involved teacher or tutor-led lectures, discussion groups, and corporate seminars or workshops in the workplace. However, as I delved into corporate training during my time as an HR professional, I learned about the theory of four distinct learning styles: Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing, and Kinesthetic (VARK).
1. Visual (V): Visual learners prefer to process information through visual aids such as diagrams, charts, graphs, videos, and other visual representations.
2. Auditory (A): Auditory learners prefer to process information through listening and speaking.
3. Reading/Writing (R): Reading/Writing learners prefer to process information through written text.
4. Kinesthetic (K): Kinesthetic learners prefer to process information through hands-on experiences and physical activities.
I have to admit, I haven’t questioned this theory, and research suggests that educators haven’t either, with 9 out of 10 of them believing that students learn better in their preferred style.
I was surprised to read that many neuroscientists consider the VARK theory to be a myth.
There is no proof of the value of learning styles as educational tools, and psychologists and neuroscientists are puzzled as to why this preoccupation with learning styles exists. This can probably be explained by the fact that even though scientists have failed to find evidence for VARK, they haven’t conclusively proved it invalid. The Null Hypothesis approach of rigorous scientific process, e.g. every theory is invalid until proven correct, doesn’t carry quite as much traction in the real world, evidently.
In the absence of scientific confirmation that VARK is failing students, it is understandable that educators continue to provide students with the choice of learning style they feel most comfortable with. While not evidence-based, the VARK model enables us to understand our learning preferences better and shape our lessons accordingly, making learning more enjoyable and subsequently more effective. However, it’s crucial to remain flexible in our approach and be willing to adapt to less ideal learning situations in pursuit of our educational goals.
When you look at the vast, arid landscape of the Sahara desert, you may find it hard to believe that this was once a lush, green space full of grasses, trees and lakes. Yet this is likely the case. It has been called the North African Humid Period, and occurred around 12,000 years ago during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geological epochs.
There is good paleoclimatological evidence to suggest that over the last 3,000,000 years, there have been 230 of these North African Humid Periods (NAHPs), indicating that the Sahara region alternates between arid phases (as present) and humid phases, which are full of rivers, vegetation and lakes. According to an article in Nature Magazine online, these NAHPs are governed by a phenomenon known as the Procession Cycle, which is when a wobble occurs in the orientation of the Earth’s axis of rotation. Thereafter, you might imagine the planet as a slightly off-centre spinning top. This off-centre rotation continues for a period of around 25,000 years. Procession is an additional form of planetary motion to the more well-known daily rotation and annual revolution cycle of the Earth. It is caused by the gravitational tidal force of the Sun and Moon acting on our planet’s equatorial bulge. There is a good visual of this rotational phenomenon here on Wikipedia.
The wobble itself is known as an Axial Procession, and it makes seasonal contrasts more extreme in one hemisphere and less extreme in the other. Not only does the procession cycle govern the seasonal contrasts, it determines temperature and precipitation variance between seasons. During the periods of increased Boreal Summer Insolation (when solar radiation hits the Earth’s northern hemisphere between March and September), the African Monsoon systems are intensified. It is these precipitation-rich phases of the procession cycle that underpin the North African Humid Periods.
This article in the Geographical explains how the most recent incarnation of the dry version of the Sahara came about. Around 12,000 years ago, the end of the ice age led to a wetter climate in the region, possibly due to low-pressure areas forming over collapsing ice-sheets in the north. But, once these ice sheets melted, the Northern Sahara region dried out. However, monsoon conditions in the South meant that the Southern Sahara region was wetter. But, eventually this monsoon retreated south (as part of the procession cycle) and the entire Sahara region become desert. This is the incarnation of the Sahara you see today.
When will this cycle end, then? Well, not for a while. Experts predict that the Sahara will revert back to that lush green alternative state in about 10,000 years.
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Human Biology IGCSE Fast Track
There is nothing scientific about my ranking system; I am featuring the equations that seem to have permeated the mainstream.
In terms of fame, there are three big equations, derived from Einstein, Pythagoras, and Newton. We are all exposed to these regularly through mainstream media and/or through secondary education. While Schrödinger’s Equation is not that well-known by the layperson, most of us have heard of the associated Schrödinger’s cat thought experiment which helps to explain the principles of quantum mechanics.
This equation has even made it onto T-shirts as some kind of nerdy fashion statement, so most people are aware of it, even if they don’t know what it means. Proposed by Albert Einstein, perhaps the most famous scientist in history, it’s no surprise this E = mc² is the most well-known, but one of the least understandable to the layman. The answer? In short, Einstein showed that a small amount of mass can create a heck of a lot of energy – as in the amount you find in in stars – and it paved the way to the nuclear age.
We all did this at school so it’s one’s pretty famous and is attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras. It states that for any triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. This theorem forms the basis of Euclidean geometry which is used in architecture and navigation.
Formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, and popularised by the scientist’s apple falling on head Eureka moment, this equation describes the relationship between force (F), mass (m), and acceleration (a). The first states that an object’s motion will not change unless acted upon by a force (Inertia). The second law states that the force exerted by an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration (Force). And the third is that when two moving objects they exert equal and opposite forces on each other (Action and Reaction).
Erwin Schrödinger’s Equation describes how the quantum state of a physical system evolves over time, incorporating the wave-particle duality of matter, which refers to the fact that matter at one moment acts like a wave and yet at another moment acts like matter. This equation has been popularised by the famously related Schrödinger’s Cat thought experiment which was designed to simplify quantum mechanics and which is now referenced in many science fiction works.
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