The Bering Land Bridge, or Beringia, was a massive landmass that once connected Asia and North America during the Ice Age. Spanning up to 1,000 miles from north to south and 600 miles wide at its peak, this expansive region served as a vital corridor for the migration of humans and animals. It played a crucial role in shaping the movement of species and the course of human history. Genetic studies reveal that individuals across Canada, North America and South America share direct ancestral links with populations in present-day Eastern Russia, highlighting the impact of this ancient land bridge.
The Bering Land Bridge emerged as a result of dramatic climatic and geological changes during the Ice Age, particularly in the Pleistocene Epoch. During this time, glaciers trapped vast amounts of the Earth’s water, causing sea levels to drop by as much as 400 feet, which exposed the Bering Land Bridge. This vast landmass supported diverse plant and animal life, creating a rich ecosystem that provided essential resources for migrating species. Over millennia, the bridge was repeatedly exposed and submerged due to the cyclical nature of glaciations and interglacial periods.
Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the first humans to cross the Bering Land Bridge were small groups of hunter-gatherers in search of animal food sources and more favourable climates. According to the “Beringian Standstill Hypothesis,” these early migrants are believed to have spent thousands of years living on the bridge itself, adapting to its unique environment. Once ice-free corridors opened up, these populations moved southward, eventually spreading throughout the Americas.
The Bering Land Bridge served as a critical corridor for the exchange of plant and animal species between continents during the Ice Age. North American species such as horses and camels migrated into Asia, while Asian species like mammoths and saber-toothed tigers journeyed into North America. This bidirectional movement enriched biodiversity on both continents and played a pivotal role in shaping evolutionary pathways.
The disappearance of the Bering Land Bridge around 11,000 years ago led to the isolation of plant and animal populations, driving distinct evolutionary pathways. The earlier exchange of species had enriched the genetic pool and fostered ecological resilience on both continents, highlighting the transformative impact of such connections. The impact of the Bering Land Bridge serves as a reminder of the pivotal role geographical features play in shaping biodiversity. Even today, the shared ancestry of certain plants and animals in Asia and North America stands as evidence of these ancient migrations.
Africa, often celebrated as the cradle of humanity, is a continent of immense diversity and potential. With its rich cultural heritage, vibrant young population driving innovation and productivity, and a wealth of the world’s natural resources, Africa stands as a cornerstone of global history and future growth.
Over the previous decades, Africa has been a long-term recipient of foreign aid aimed at assisting with poverty, healthcare, education and infrastructure. There is however a call for change within Africa, a call that promotes long-term goals of empowerment, self-reliance and sustainable partnerships.
Since 1960, Africa has received billions of dollars in financial aid. While these initiatives have undoubtedly played a large part in addressing pressing concerns, its impact as had both positive and negative impacts. Economic support has been instrumental in humanitarian relief, saving countless lives during crises like the 2011 Somali famine and the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa. It has also strengthened healthcare through vaccination programs and AIDS treatments, while funding schools and expanding access to education.
Despite these successes, international aid has also received criticism and sparked debate about its long-term effectiveness. It has been argued that financial aid focuses on short-term relief that creates a cycle of dependency. For instance, free food supplies have sometimes undercut local farmers, negatively impacting their livelihoods. Additionally, corruption and mismanagement have often obstructed the effective use of funds, leaving those most in need without support.
There is a growing call for greater involvement from the local communities that aid is intended to support. Many donors often overlook the complexities, priorities and cultural nuances of the people they aim to assist, resulting in solutions that may not align with their needs.
Many African leaders and communities are calling for more locally led initiates. These bottom-up approaches can ensure that aid is better aligned with local needs as part of a long-term sustainable solution. Many critics of traditional aid are pushing for equitable trade partnerships and fair access to global markets, investment in local industries and private sector involvement to help drive economic growth and job creation.
There is a clear need to shift the narrative of aid towards one that highlights Africa as a hub of innovation, entrepreneurship and cultural wealth. Partnership programs that promote skill-sharing, technology transfer and joint ventures will empower Africa to take a more active role in shaping its own development.
Latin is considered the foundation on which many European languages are built, having left a mark on their vocabulary, grammar and cultural expression. Its influence is most evident in the Romantic languages, but its influence also reaches further afield. English for example, despite being a Germanic language, has over 60% of its words tracing back to Latin origins. For just one example, the Latin word computare, meaning “to calculate,” has evolved over centuries into the modern term computer, connecting the ancient language to today’s advanced technologies.
Latin spread across Europe with the expansion of the Roman Empire, becoming the administrative and cultural language of its vast territories. It developed into two distinct forms: Classical Latin, used in literature and formal contexts, and Vulgar Latin, spoken by the general population. Even after the fall of the Roman Empire, the language endured and continued to spread, largely through the influence of the Catholic Church and its teachings.
Across Europe, the Vulgar version of the language merged with local pre-Roman languages and dialects, such as Iberian and Celtic, absorbing their unique linguistic features. The fragmentation of the Roman Empire, combined with reduced communication caused by natural barriers like rivers and mountains, allowed distinct regional languages to emerge. Later, invaders such as the Franks and Slavs further shaped these developing languages with their own contributions.
The Romance languages are the closest relatives of Vulgar Latin, with Italian maintaining the most similar structure and vocabulary. Spanish and Portuguese reflect a fusion of Latin and Arabic influences from the period of Moorish rule, while French incorporates Germanic elements, and Romanian features linguistic traits from the Balkans. Despite these variations, all Romance languages share a core vocabulary firmly anchored in their Latin origins.
Latin’s influence extends far beyond the Romance languages, shaping many others across Europe. Germanic languages like English were influenced by it during the Roman occupation of Britain and later through the Norman Conquest, which introduced Old French. Celtic languages, including Welsh and Irish, also adopted its terms during Roman rule, particularly in religious contexts. The Catholic Church further reinforced its impact, especially on Germanic and Slavic languages like Polish, through its widespread use in religious and scholarly settings.
As well as influencing everyday language, Latin became the language of the scientific and academic community during the Renaissance and Middle Ages periods which still persist today. Latin phrases such as pro bono can also be found deeply embedded in our current legal system.
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New Year’s Celebrations are an all-consuming global event with spectacular firework displays from almost every major capital city in the world, broadcast on TV, signaling the new calendar. A significant part of the world doesn’t follow the Gregorian calendar and do not celebrate their new year on the 31st of December, but do so on alternate dates, in line with their own traditions and belief systems. I have outlined 5 well-known alternate new year celebrations below.
The Chinese New Year is based on the Lunar Calendar and is referred to as the “Spring Festival” in China. It is one of the most widely celebrated holidays in the world. Rooted in the Chinese lunar calendar, its date varies annually. Families gather to honour ancestors, eat traditional foods like dumplings, and watch stunning firework displays. Each year is associated with a different zodiac animal, believed to influence the year’s character, and 2025 will be the year of the snake and starts on January 29th. New Year’s Eve and ends on February the 12th, the Lantern Festival. While China is the origin, countries like Vietnam (Tết) and South Korea (Seollal) also celebrate variations of Lunar New Year.
Nowruz, translating to “New Day,” marks the Persian New Year and the first day of spring and is based around the Northern Hemisphere’s Spring Equinox. Originating over 3,000 years ago in Zoroastrianism, it is now celebrated by millions across Iran, Central Asia, and parts of the Middle East. Rituals include cleaning homes (spring cleaning), preparing a Haft-Seen table adorned with symbolic items, and visiting family. The holiday embodies renewal, growth, and harmony with nature and is based on the Solar Hijri Calendar.
In certain parts of India, such as Gujarat and Maharashtra, the festival of Diwali doubles as the New Year. Diwali, the Festival of Lights, and celebrates the triumph of light over darkness and good over evil. Homes are lit with oil lamps, sweets are shared, and prayers are offered to Goddess Lakshmi for prosperity. The day after Diwali marks the beginning of a new year in the Vikram Samvat calendar, ushering in hope and positivity.
Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the Jewish High Holy Days. Celebrated over two days, it is a time of reflection, prayer, and renewal. Traditions include the sounding of the shofar (a ram’s horn), eating symbolic foods like apples dipped in honey to symbolise a sweet year, and reciting prayers of repentance. Rosh Hashanah is deeply spiritual, focusing on self-improvement and reconciliation. It is celebrated within Jewish populations World-wide.
Songkran, rooted in Buddhist and Hindu traditions, means “passing” or “approaching” in Sanskrit and aligns with the solar calendar and celebrates renewal. It is most famously known for its exuberant water fights, symbolizing purification and the washing away of bad luck.
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Stepping into a world of festive delights is truly magical, and there’s no better place to experience this than at a Christmas market! Adorned with beautiful lights and decorations, there’s something truly enchanting about wandering through a Christmas market on a frosty winter evening, sipping mulled wine and admiring the twinkling lights. While today’s Christmas markets are beloved for their festive atmosphere, delicious treats, and unique gifts, their origins are steeped in centuries of history. Let’s take a closer look at how these beloved winter traditions began and uncover the stories behind some of the world’s most famous Christmas markets.
The tradition of Christmas markets dates back to the Late Middle Ages in German-speaking Europe. The earliest recorded market is believed to be Vienna’s “December Market,” which took place in 1298. Originally, these markets were practical affairs, allowing townsfolk to stock up on provisions for the cold winter months and purchase handmade goods for festive celebrations.
It wasn’t until the 14th century that these markets began to take on a distinctly Christmas-like atmosphere. The “Christkindlmarkt,” or “Christ Child Market,” emerged in Germany, with Dresden’s Striezelmarkt first recorded in 1434. These markets offered holiday treats, festive decorations, and gifts inspired by Christian traditions, becoming a cherished part of Advent celebrations.
The Dresden Striezelmarkt holds the distinction of being the oldest documented Christmas market in the world and is regularly voted the favourite Christmas market in German-speaking countries. Its name derives from “Striezel,” a traditional German cake that evolved into the famous “Stollen.” This sweet, fruit-filled bread remains a centrepiece of the market, with an annual Stollen Festival drawing visitors from across the globe. “Striezel” also means to stroll around the Striezelmarkt (Germany’s oldest Christmas market) during Advent.
Over the centuries, the Striezelmarkt has grown into a sprawling affair, featuring over 200 stalls selling everything from handcrafted wooden ornaments to steaming mugs of Glühwein (mulled wine). The market’s iconic giant Christmas pyramid, a towering wooden structure adorned with spinning figurines, is a nod to traditional German craftsmanship.
Nuremberg’s Christkindlesmarkt is another legendary Christmas market, renowned for its long history and distinctive traditions. Officially documented in the 1600s, this market is a feast for the senses, with the scent of roasted almonds and bratwurst filling the air. In the “little city of wood and cloth” (the booths and stalls), you will find beautiful handmade gifts. This tradition dates back from the beginnings of the market. Originally, it was a trading point for merchants, but this evolved to more Christmassy items and gifts because of the Reformation, it became customary to buy children gifts on Christmas Eve rather than New Year’s Eve. As a result, people wanted to buy Christmas gifts a week before – the Christmas Market as we know it was born!
One of its most endearing customs is the selection of the “Christkind,” a young woman chosen to represent the Christ Child. Each year, she delivers an opening prologue and presides over the market, dressed in a shimmering golden robe and crown. This tradition embodies the spirit of Christmas and ensures a magical experience for visitors.
Crossing over into France, Strasbourg’s Christmas market, or Christkindelsmärik, dates back to 1570, making it one of the oldest in Europe. Known as the “Capital of Christmas,” Strasbourg is a city that truly embraces the festive season. Its market spans the city’s historic centre, with the majestic Strasbourg Cathedral providing a stunning backdrop. Hundreds of merchants and craftsmen occupy the 300 chalets set up in the city centre.
Strasbourg’s market is famous for its focus on Alsatian traditions, including delicacies like bredele biscuits and spiced wine. Its beautifully decorated thirty-metre Christmas tree, brought to Place Kléber, is the tallest in Europe, and serves as the crowning jewel of this magical destination. This essential symbol of “Strasbourg, Capital of Christmas” is also the highest decorated Christmas tree in Europe.
In recent decades, the charm of traditional Christmas markets has spread far beyond Mainland Europe. Cities like London, Edinburgh, and Manchester have embraced the trend, incorporating both local traditions and continental influences. For example, London’s Winter Wonderland in Hyde Park offers a mix of Bavarian-style chalets and modern attractions, while Edinburgh’s market on Princes Street combines Scottish flavours with classic festive fare.
Even further afield, Christmas markets have gained popularity in cities like New York, Chicago, and Tokyo, proving that the festive spirit knows no boundaries.
The enduring appeal of Christmas markets lies in their ability to transport us back in time while celebrating the present. They offer a rare combination of nostalgia, community spirit, and sensory delight. Whether it’s sipping a warm drink in the glow of fairy lights or discovering a unique handcrafted gift, the experience feels timeless and comforting. As you stroll through a market this season, take a moment to reflect on its history. Behind the festive cheer lies a rich tapestry of tradition, craftsmanship, and cultural exchange that has stood the test of time.
So, this Christmas, why not visit a market with fresh eyes and a newfound appreciation for the centuries of joy that have made it what it is today? After all, these winter wonderlands are far more than just places to shop—they’re living pieces of history.
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And with those six words starts one of the most iconic stories ever told.
It is in a snowy winter in London that we first meet Ebenezer Scrooge, an old man who has become bitter with life. He is known for being cold and selfish and profits off his impoverished community, financially benefitting from their labour whilst paying measly wages to his employees—sounds somewhat relevant today, doesn’t it?
Later, the Ghosts of Christmas Past, Present, and Future show Scrooge what he needs to see before it’s too late to save his soul, and we get to witness the mistakes of his past, the emptiness of his present, and the dark future that awaits him.
Few stories capture the spirit of Christmas like Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol. Published on December 19, 1843, it quickly became a hit, selling out its first 6,000 copies within a week and cementing Dickens’ reputation as a storyteller who could move audiences to laughter, tears, and action. Even now, almost 200 years later, it continues to be retold, from the page to the screen. There’s even one cinematic retelling with Michael Caine playing the Scrooge role as seriously as a car crash… alongside a supporting cast of muppets.
So just what inspired Dickens to write the classic tale?
Dickens’ motivation for writing A Christmas Carol was deeply rooted in his own early life. Born into a middle-class family, his fortunes took a sharp turn in 1824 when his father was imprisoned for debt. At just 12 years old, Dickens was sent to work in a blacking factory, pasting labels on pots of shoe polish in grim conditions. The experience left an indelible mark. He later described feeling “utterly neglected and hopeless,” sentiments that would later infuse his depictions of characters like Tiny Tim and the Cratchit family.
While Dickens eventually escaped the clutches of poverty, his exposure to the hardships faced by children and families in Victorian England stayed with him. By the time he wrote A Christmas Carol, he was a man haunted by the plight of the poor, particularly children, and determined to use his voice to inspire change.
The 1840s were a time of economic depression, mass unemployment, and widespread poverty. Industrialisation had drawn families into overcrowded cities, where conditions were squalid, and even children were expected to work to make ends meet. Many laboured in factories, mines, and workhouses, often for up to sixteen—yes, sixteen—hours a day. Life expectancy for these young workers rarely exceeded their mid-20s.
Dickens’ observations of these conditions were eye-opening. These charity-run institutions provided basic education but were poorly funded, overcrowded, and rife with disease. Dickens was horrified, describing the environment as “sickening” and haunted by the sight of boys and girls “with nothing natural to youth about them.” This visit solidified his determination to shine a light on the devastating effects of poverty and neglect.
Dickens’ outrage extended to the workhouses, infamous for their dehumanising conditions and punitive treatment of the poor. Designed to discourage reliance on public assistance, they separated families by gender and forced residents to labour in exchange for meagre sustenance. Dickens’ depiction of Bob Cratchit’s precarious position as Scrooge’s underpaid employee captured the real fear of families being driven to such dire straits.
Initially, Dickens planned to write a pamphlet titled An Appeal to the People of England on behalf of the Poor Man’s Child. However, he soon realised that a simple pamphlet wouldn’t deliver the emotional impact he desired. Fiction, he decided, could convey his message with “twenty thousand times the force.”
In just six weeks, Dickens poured his anger, empathy, and storytelling prowess into A Christmas Carol. The novella’s supernatural elements and unforgettable characters, from the miserly Ebenezer Scrooge to the angelic Tiny Tim, allowed Dickens to weave his social commentary into an engaging and accessible tale. At its heart was a call for empathy and action: a reminder that the well-being of society’s most vulnerable is everyone’s responsibility.
One of the most poignant moments in the story comes when the Ghost of Christmas Present reveals two emaciated children hidden beneath his robe: Ignorance and Want. These allegorical figures warn of the consequences of neglecting the poor, especially children, whose futures are shaped by the opportunities—or lack thereof—afforded to them. This chilling scene, often omitted from modern adaptations, underscores Dickens’ belief that societal indifference to poverty was a moral failing.
Though Dickens’ social conscience was a major driving force, his personal circumstances also played a role in the creation of A Christmas Carol. In 1843, his latest novel, Martin Chuzzlewit, was selling poorly, and his publishers were threatening to cut his salary. With a growing family to feed and debts to be repaid, Dickens needed a hit—and fast.
Despite the urgency, Dickens spared no effort in ensuring his novella was a masterpiece. He would often take long walks around London at night, conjuring scenes and dialogue as he roamed the city streets. The story came together quickly, with Dickens completing the 30,000-word manuscript in just over a month. Yet his financial gamble didn’t pay off as expected. To ensure the book met his exacting standards, Dickens paid for the publication himself, demanding luxurious bindings and gilt-edged pages. Priced at the equivalent of £25 today, the book was a commercial success but left Dickens with a fraction of the profits he had hoped for. Still, the novella’s enduring popularity ensured that his financial woes were eventually eased, particularly through public readings that he performed until his death.
Nearly two centuries later, A Christmas Carol remains as relevant as ever. The issues Dickens grappled with—child poverty, income inequality, and the moral obligation to care for the less fortunate—continue to resonate. Scrooge’s transformation from a selfish miser to a compassionate benefactor serves as a timeless reminder that it’s never too late to change and make a difference.
Charles Dickens’ motivations for writing the novella were deeply personal, profoundly empathetic, and undeniably practical. Whether driven by his own experiences of hardship, his desire to spark social reform, or his need to pay the bills, he created a story that transcends its origins to become a universal tale of hope and humanity. As we sit down to Turkey and all the trimmings (while trying to avoid eye contact with the Brussels sprouts), it’s worth remembering the message at the heart of A Christmas Carol: that the true spirit of Christmas lies in kindness.
Many happy returns this festive season, and have a happy new year too!
With crumbling ancient temples and open brick-built theatres, the weather-worn Italian city of Pompei is steeped in history. Most notable of all, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. buried the city in 4-6 metres of volcanic ash and pumice, preserving it under the ash for years to come. This unique site provides an insight into Roman life, frozen from the moment it was encumbered in ash.
The city itself was built on a coastal lava plateau which was created by Mount Vesuvius’ earlier eruptions. In 79 A.D., it erupted again only to drown Pompeii and its 10,000 residents in a blanket of deadly ash and rock. The black ash was so thick it obscured the sun, and ash continued to reign down, reaching up to nine feet in some places. Pompeii was lost. The once busy and bustling Roman city had been reduced to ashes, and it was much forgotten until 1748 when it was rediscovered. With excavations still continuing today, this disaster-struck city now provides a window into Roman life, architecture and culture – an invaluable archaeological goldmine.
With a third of the city still to be cleared of volcanic debris, new and exciting discoveries are still taking place. The current excavation has uncovered a ‘black room’, as presented by the park director, Dr Gabriel Zuchtriegel. With floor to ceiling black walls, and a white mosaic floor, the banqueting hall is decorated with beautiful artworks depicting the likes of Helen of Troy and the god Apollo, who is trying to seduce the priestess Cassandra.
Another notable discovery, which has been somewhat mysterious, includes that of a laundry room in one corner of the park. Next door, a bakery and a grand residence (that including the ‘black room’) have been uncovered. Passageways and plumbing connect these areas, while the initials ‘ARV’ appear on the walls and bakery’s millstones.
Dr Sophie Hay identifies this person as Aulus Rustius Verus, who was a wealthy politician. The properties were also believed to be undergoing renovation, which sadly was never to be completed due to the eruption. Workers left stacked roof tiles, tools and materials in their attempts to escape.
As well as the mysteries of Pompeii’s infrastructure, researchers focusing on human remains from Pompeii have extracted the first ‘Pompeian human genome’ from the bones of a man and woman who were buried in the eruption. Their ancient DNA was preserved in their corpses, which had been wrapped in time-hardened ash. The findings showed that one victim shared genetic markers with others who lived in Italy in the Roman Imperial Age, as well as those found in Sardinia, indicating high genetic diversity in the Italian Peninsula.
This is just the start of what can be learnt by such groundbreaking research. Thanks to the ardent commitment of archaeologists, historians and scientists, the world can understand one of the biggest natural disasters in history and have a glimpse into a past we would otherwise never know.
References
Amons, Jonathan, Morelle, Rebecca and Francis, Alison. (2024). Pompei: Breathtaking New Paintings Found at Ancient City: BBC News. Source: Pompeii: Breathtaking new paintings found at ancient city – BBC News
Gill, Victoria. (2022) Ancient DNA Reveals Secrets of Pompei Victims in BBC News: Ancient DNA reveals secrets of Pompeii victims
Science is an ever-evolving field, and ideas once accepted as fact have often later been found to be incomplete or incorrect. As new evidence and advanced tools become available, scientists are able to refine, challenge, or even overturn earlier theories. In this article, I’ll explore five scientific theories that were once widely accepted but later disproved or replaced by more accurate models. Although I initially considered including the flat Earth theory, I’ve excluded it, as the belief that medieval scholars widely thought the Earth was flat is largely a myth. In fact, as early as the 5th century BC, the Ancient Greeks, and later European and Middle Eastern scholars in the early Middle Ages (600–1000 AD), had already recognised the Earth’s sphericity.
For much of history, people believed that life could spontaneously arise from non-living matter, a concept known as spontaneous generation. According to this theory, organisms like flies, fleas, and maggots could materialise from decaying meat. The work of great Thinkers such as Aristotle gave support to this idea for centuries. However, in the 17th century, the Italian physician Francesco Redi began to question it. Using a series of scientific experiments, he demonstrated that maggots only appeared on meat if flies had access to lay eggs there. In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur conducted further experiments, ultimately disproving spontaneous generation and paving the way for germ and cell theory, which eventually grew into the field of microbiology.
Given our vantage point on Earth, it’s easy to see how people once believed we were at the centre of the solar system—or even the universe. Up until the 16th century, this geocentric model (with Earth at the centre) was widely accepted. It wasn’t until the investigations of Nicolaus Copernicus and later scientists that the heliocentric scientific model (with the Sun at the centre) gained acceptance in mainstream science, reshaping our understanding of the cosmos.
Before modern medicine, people believed that diseases like cholera, plague, and malaria were caused by “miasma,” or “bad air” filled with noxious vapours from decaying matter. According to the miasma theory, simply breathing polluted air could make a person ill. This idea persisted for centuries until germ theory, supported by work from pioneers like Antony van Leeuwenhoek and Louis-Daniel Beauperthuy, established that disease is caused by microorganisms, not by foul air.
Today, we estimate that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, a figure determined through radiometric dating of the oldest rocks on Earth and the Moon. This understanding is relatively recent. For centuries, based on biblical interpretations, people believed that Earth was only around 6,000 years old. This estimate aligned with religious texts but began to conflict with 19th-century scientific discoveries in archaeology, geology, and evolutionary biology, which pointed to a much older Earth.
Surprisingly, until the 1980s, the leading scientific theory was that dinosaurs became extinct due to a massive super-volcano eruption. Other hypotheses suggested that dinosaurs were wiped out by a plague or died off due to an inability to adapt, possibly because of their small brains. I remember learning these now-outdated theories in school! About a decade later, however, scientists discovered the Chicxulub crater, providing evidence that a meteor strike 66 million years ago likely ended the age of dinosaurs.
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The blueprint for our modern Christmas, complete with trees, cards, gifts, turkey, decorations, and a grand Christmas Day celebration, was arguably laid down during the Victorian era. It certainly hasn’t always been what we have today. So, what was it like before the Victorians?
The reality is that prior, there was no centralised tradition for celebrating Christmas, and customs often varied according to region, social status, and wealth.
Before the 19th century, Christmas was celebrated as a longer season rather than the 2-3 day event we know today. It lasted 12 days from Christmas Day to January 5th, known as Twelfth Night. In other parts of the country, the festive period extended for an entire month, beginning on St. Nicholas’s Day (6th December), during which gifts were exchanged, and continuing through to Twelfth Night.
For the wealthy, Christmas in the Georgian and Regency eras (1714 to 1830) was a time of continuous celebration, featuring open houses, lavish suppers and extravagant balls. It resembled what we now think of as a social season, much like the one depicted in Bridgerton. Charitable acts were also important, particularly on Saint Thomas’ Day (21st December), when poor widows, especially those affected by the Napoleonic wars, could go ‘thomasing’ knocking on doors to seek alms or food.
On Christmas Eve, both the wealthy and the poor would gather holly and evergreens to bring indoors, a tradition that celebrated the return of longer days. Wreaths and garlands were crafted, and the tradition of kissing under the mistletoe was observed. Christmas Day itself was a time to dispel winter’s gloom. A candle was lit to symbolise warmth and light, and the Yule log (an actual wooden log, not the dessert) was brought in from the woods and lit using a piece from the previous year’s log. Christmas dinner was a sumptuous affair, featuring fowl, mince pies, cheese, and other delicacies, shared with family and friends. The next day, December 26th, Saint Stephen’s Day, was dedicated to charity, when servants and tenants received Christmas boxes of gifts or money, giving rise to the name “Boxing Day.”
The twelfth night marked the end of the Christmas season, celebrated with a party that included singing, dancing, mulled wine, and games like apple bobbing. It was also the day when festive greenery was removed from homes and burned, as it was considered bad luck to keep it indoors after this date.
Just a few decades before the Georgian era, between 1647 and 1660, Christmas was effectively banned in the UK under Commonwealth/Protectorate legislation. This suppression of festive celebrations was highly unpopular, leading to riots in Kent and other parts of the country. Despite the ban, many people reportedly continued to celebrate Christmas in defiance of the law.
Before the Victorian era, Christmas in Britain came in many forms, differing by class and region. While the wealthy enjoyed lavish feasts, balls, and extended party seasons, the poor tended to focus more on receiving charity and communal gatherings but spent most of their time working!
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Trees are up all around, festive lights are everywhere, and Christmas carolers are braving the winter chill to spread a bit of joy with their songs. It’s the most wonderful time of the year—apart from that one time when it wasn’t. Yes, like in any Christmas film where the festive joy is under threat of being no more, there was a moment when Christmas was actually cancelled, allegedly at the hands of Oliver Cromwell.
Back in the 17th century, there was a fair bit of unrest in England which ultimately led to a civil war that Cromwell played a big part in. Years after becoming an MP in 1628, he became a military leader when parliament went to war with King Charles I. After the king was ultimately defeated and executed in 1649, Cromwell formed a new republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. He took the rather humble title of Lord Protector and ruled as a bit of a dictator. Not long after his death his republic collapsed and normal service was resumed in England with the monarchy’s restoration under King Charles II in 1660.
However, before all that drama, Cromwell had a hand in something which while not quite as treasonous, was still rather sinister. He banned Christmas, or so it’s commonly believed. But just how much of a role did he play in the cancelling of the most beloved holiday?
First, a little context is needed. At the time, Puritans were on the rise. English Protestants sought to reform the Church of England by removing Catholic practices in a bid to ‘purify’ (hence the name) religion in England. Puritans believed that people should dress modestly, and prohibited the likes of theatre and games. They also believed that Sunday was the Lord’s day and so should not be a day of rest, but that it should be devoted to religious study. To their credit, they did encourage literacy for both men and women so that everyone could read the bible, so in that sense they were progressive.
With Protestants on the rise throughout Europe, particularly in England in the 1600s, many of them had their eyes on Christmas, and how it was too closely associated with Catholicism as opposed to what was written in the Bible. Parliament was becoming increasingly Puritan, while King Charles I was very much in favour of the Anglican church’s ceremonies.
This came to a head in the 1640s when the country was in a state of upheaval. The King had dissolved parliament for challenging him but parliament reasserted itself with its own mandate, resulting in a bitter civil war across the country. A series of bills were passed, each becoming more restrictive when it came to celebrating Christmas, and it was eventually expunged from the calendar and all celebrations banned. Shops were to remain open, while decorative displays of holly, ivy, rosemary and bay were forbidden. Constables were given power to examine the contents of ovens and to confiscate dishes deemed festive. Military patrols took to city streets to enforce the bans.
Seasonal celebration may have retreated behind closed doors, but, when the mayor of Canterbury put a shopkeeper in the stocks for refusing to open on Christmas Day, the townsfolk rallied. In what became known as the ‘Plum Pudding Riots’, an angry crowd gathered and windows of known Puritans were smashed. The mayor was jostled and felled, his robes torn, and he was obliged to flee. Similar incidents occurred in London, Norwich, Ipswich, and Bury St Edmunds, with the spirit of rebellion spreading to Kentish ports, where sailors mutinied and laid siege to Dover.
A new phase in the Civil War followed and things became even grimmer. King Charles I was executed, Parliamentary rule became absolute, the cause for King and Christmas lapsed into sullen public resentment. For the foreseeable future, there were no Christmases in England and many parts of Europe. It would be 1660 before Cromwell’s republic fell and the monarchy and Christmas restored.
However, is the popular belief that Cromwell was the man behind all this truly justified? Just how much involvement did he have in Christmas’ cancellation? While he may have been the figurehead of the republic, Cromwell had little to do with the banning of Christmas. And while he may have been very much in favour of it, being the proud puritan he was, crucially he was absent from parliament when the key ban was introduced in 1647—at the time he was under threat of arrest by the House of Commons for supporting soldiers’ protests in a dispute over fairer pay.
The story of England’s cancelled Christmas is a fascinating glimpse into a turbulent time when politics, religion and societal change collided. While Oliver Cromwell remains the figure most associated with this festive prohibition, the reality is more complex, with the ban rooted in the Puritan ideals that dominated Parliament during the Civil War.
It’s a reminder of how traditions we hold dear can be reshaped—or even outlawed—by the tides of history.
Thankfully, Christmas proved resilient, returning with the monarchy in 1660 and enduring as a beloved celebration ever since. There’s no chance of Christmas being cancelled this year, so many happy returns and fingers crossed, Santa will leave you all something special under your tree. And have a happy new year as well!
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