Mars, with its cold and barren landscape, may seem inhospitable to life as we know it, but it might once have been teeming with life. I mean, the Sahara desert wasn’t always a desert. Just 2,500 years ago, during the African Humid Period, it was lush green and covered in grass, trees, and lakes. Is it so hard to believe that 2,000,000 years ago the desert-like Mars might have also been teaming with life?
Astrobiologists, those involved in the study of the origin and evolution of off-world life, have in recent years attempted to answer this question with the help of technological and off-world scientific rovers that traverse and study the geological makeup of Mars. One of the key pieces of evidence supporting the idea of past life on Mars is the presence of huge craters — called bench-and-nose formations — which are thought to have once been habitable rivers. These were discovered by NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover and the scientists who analysed its data, using numerical models that simulated thousands of years of erosion.
In 2020, the continuing search for signs of past life on Mars led to the deployment of advanced robotic missions like NASA’s Perseverance rover (The image above is a photo of the surface taken by the rover. Its helicopter component can also be spotted in flight on the right of the shot). With its cutting-edge instruments, the goal of Perseverance is to explore and examine the ancient lake-bed of Jezero Crater, where scientists believe that the then-warm and wet conditions may have been conducive to life billions of years ago.
One of Perseverance’s primary objectives is to collect rock samples that may preserve traces of ancient microbial life. These samples will be stored and eventually returned to Earth, where the extraterrestrial rocks can be analysed in laboratories equipped with sophisticated instruments capable of detecting any such fossilised biomolecules.
In addition to these physical searches overground, in 2021 scientists (writing in the peer-reviewed journal Astro Biology), studied Martian meteorites and revealed that rocks below the planet’s surface could produce the same kinds of chemical energy that allow for subterranean life on Earth. Again, this was a fascinating but tentative conclusion, drawn from circumstantial evidence just like previous rover studies. So, while we can’t say definitively that there was once life on Mars, the case for it is getting much more compelling.
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On 31st March, in 1855, Charlotte Brontë, of the famous literary family, died. She was only 39 years old. The eldest of the Brontë sisters (there was Emily and Anne, as well as brother Branwell), even despite her own relatively young age, she had outlived her siblings. Charlotte was most well-known for her novel ‘Jane Eyre’, a classic of English literature which is loved and adored by readers the world over.
Back in the 19th Century, life was tough – and many people didn’t live into old age due to poor health and miserable living conditions. For the Brontës, though, they were relatively fortunate and lived at Haworth Parsonage, on the edge of the Yorkshire Moors in the north of England. Here, the four siblings invented imaginary worlds and had quite an idyllic childhood. They would also have had two other siblings, but sadly they died young. The four, who all wrote in later life, spent their days creating worlds that were quite different to their reality.
The siblings called their collected imaginary world ‘Glass Town’ – Charlotte Brontë was only 11 when this came to be and she also referred to it as her ‘world below’. Branwell was obsessed with battles and politics; Charlotte preferred grand, romantic settings, with passionate relationships; and younger sisters Emily and Anne had a desire to write about more homely, cosy themes. All in all, the siblings created a world which was an amalgamation of all of their ideas. They even published their own homemade magazine which included some of Charlotte’s poems (she wrote more than 200 in her lifetime and many of these featured in this family publication).
If you study English Literature at A-Level, you may well be asked to read ‘Jane Eyre’. It is, for many, a favourite novel – the Gothic setting and the madwoman in the attic are famous for good reason. But even if you are not a fan of such classic literature, you can’t help but be interested in the wonderful world of the Brontës and how they lived their lives. I, personally, find it fascinating that all four siblings were successful writers, to varying degrees.
So, on 31st March this year, if you are looking for your next good read, why don’t you pick up ‘Jane Eyre’. Maybe the writing of Charlotte Brontë will help you create your own imaginary world!
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The subject of quantum computing remains largely confined to the realm of exclusive coffee table discussions among theoretical physicists like Fernando Brandao and Oskar Painter. This suggests that the topic of quantum computing may fly way over the average person’s head, fascinating as it is. One of the best ways to shed light on this esoteric subject is to compare it with classical computing, and then outline the underlying quantum principles in a more relatable, albeit cursory way.
For example, this Caltech article explains that both quantum and classical computers — yes the one you are currently using — tend to have microchips, circuits, and logic gates. Algorithms written by programmers, and increasingly by AI, control the operations using binary code and ones and zeros in both classical and quantum computing. Furthermore, both quantum and classical machines employ physical objects to encode binary data. However, this is where the similarities end.
While the computer you are reading this on encodes data in two states, either on or off (binary digits), Quantum computers have taken a significant quantum leap forward. They use quantum bits (or qubits) and process data differently. While today’s computers process using ones and zeros, a qubit can be a superposition of one and zero simultaneously until its state is measured. Also, these states of multiple qubits can be quantum mechanically entangled. Superposition and entanglement are what give quantum computers powerful capabilities extending beyond that of classical computing.
While the potential of quantum computing is indeed profound, the full extent of its impact on modern computing capabilities remains uncertain. Quantum computers have existed in a nascent and experimental form for roughly a decade and are not yet utilised in industry or for practical everyday tasks. For now, classical computing reigns supreme.
However, quantum computing made an important experimental breakthrough in 2019 when it completed a calculation in a fraction of the time a classical computer would have required. While this is considered proof of principle it will be years before quantum computers will be solving practical problems like this in the everyday, or grace the desks of everyday users!
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Our body is highly complex, with many physiological processes taking place within its tissues and organs. Every day, it is subjected to changes in its internal and external environment. Homeostasis is the process by which our bodies maintain balance and stability against these stresses. The word is derived from the Greek word “homeo” meaning similar to, and “stasis” meaning to stand still. The process of homeostasis protects the body, helping it to survive what could otherwise be life-threatening situations, by maintaining a balance in such things as temperature, glucose, water and pH levels.
Perhaps the most widely known example of homeostasis is the regulation of blood sugar levels by the pancreas. If not regulated properly, conditions such as diabetes can occur from hyperglycemia (high sugar levels) or hyporglycemia (low blood sugar levels). The pancreas releases two key hormones to control sugar levels; insulin helps to control the rate of glucose uptake by cells while glucagon controls the release of glucose from the body’s glycogen stores. These hormones work closely together to regulate sugar levels during meals or periods of exercise.
In order to properly function, the body needs to be kept at around 37 degrees Celsius – each of our bodies has a very slight variation in this temperature. A deviation from this temperature, even by a few degrees, is potentially very dangerous.
A region of our brain known as the hypothalamus helps to monitor our body’s temperature and actions responses such as sweating, shivering or restricting blood flow to the extremities to help maintain its core temperature. Sometimes, our bodies override our natural temperature in the event of a viral or bacterial infection, creating a fever to help stimulate our immune system and impede a foreign attack.
Maintaining our fluid levels and electrolytic balance is essential for our health and our body controls this through the regulation of water intake and excretion via our kidneys. The average adult needs around 2.5 litres of water a day to achieve this balance. When low levels of water are detected, the hypothalamus synthesises a hormone known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which communicates to the kidneys to reabsorb more water.
The pH levels for different parts of the human body vary widely, from pH 1 gastric acid to pH 8.1 pancreatic fluid. Human blood needs to have a pH level of between 7.35-7.45 (slightly alkaline) to be within a healthy range. Having the appropriate blood pH level allows proper cellular and enzyme functionality and is regulated by the bicarbonate ion – carbonic acid system, the lungs and kidneys. The lungs are able to regulate blood pH rapidly through the rate of exhalation of carbon dioxide. The kidneys on the other hand have a slower impact on pH levels by excreting acids or synthesising bicarbonate.
We can see that the human body processes are complex, and there is a vital need for regulation to ensure proper functioning and health. This is achieved by the body’s coordination of all its systems working in harmony, in which the hypothalamus plays a key role. Homeostasis allows us to regulate ourselves in the often harsh conditions of the natural world, allowing us to cope with extreme temperature variations or periods of famine. It has also been attributed as a driving force for evolution in organisms.
Have you ever looked up at the sky and marvelled at aeroplanes, defying gravity and soaring through the clouds? We take the wonder of flight for granted much of the time, unless, of course, we are flying through heavy turbulence. But, behind the seemingly effortless motion of these aircraft lies a complex interplay of four forces: lift, weight, thrust and drag, that enable them to take off, manoeuvre and stay aloft.
Lift is the aerodynamic force that must be generated to overcome the weight of an aircraft, allowing it to take off and rise. It is generated primarily by the wings of the aircraft as it moves through the air. The shape of the wings, known as aerofoils, creates a pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces. This pressure difference results in an upward force, lifting the aircraft against the pull of gravity. Tilting the wing upwards deflects the air downward, creating more lift, and is used to help the plane climb, and vice versa!
Weight is the gravitational force exerted on an aircraft due to its mass. It acts downward towards the centre of the Earth and is equal to the mass of the aircraft multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity (F=mg). For an aircraft to achieve flight, the lift generated by its wings must equal or exceed its weight.
Thrust is the force that propels an aircraft forward through the air. It is generated by engines or propulsion systems such as propellers or jet turbines which expel air or gases and generate thrust that overcomes drag (defined next), causing the aircraft to accelerate and maintain its speed.
Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes the motion of an aircraft through the air. It is caused by the friction between the aircraft’s surfaces and the air molecules it encounters.
These four forces combine to create and maintain flight in two stages. Firstly, during takeoff, the thrust provided by the engines accelerates the aircraft, allowing it to reach a speed at which lift generated by the wings exceeds the aircraft’s weight, enabling it to ascend into the sky. Then, when a plane is in steady, level flight, the four forces of flight are in a state of equilibrium. The lift generated by the wings balances the weight of the aircraft, while thrust overcomes drag to maintain forward motion.
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There is nothing scientific about my ranking system; I am featuring the equations that seem to have permeated the mainstream.
In terms of fame, there are three big equations, derived from Einstein, Pythagoras, and Newton. We are all exposed to these regularly through mainstream media and/or through secondary education. While Schrödinger’s Equation is not that well-known by the layperson, most of us have heard of the associated Schrödinger’s cat thought experiment which helps to explain the principles of quantum mechanics.
This equation has even made it onto T-shirts as some kind of nerdy fashion statement, so most people are aware of it, even if they don’t know what it means. Proposed by Albert Einstein, perhaps the most famous scientist in history, it’s no surprise this E = mc² is the most well-known, but one of the least understandable to the layman. The answer? In short, Einstein showed that a small amount of mass can create a heck of a lot of energy – as in the amount you find in in stars – and it paved the way to the nuclear age.
We all did this at school so it’s one’s pretty famous and is attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras. It states that for any triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. This theorem forms the basis of Euclidean geometry which is used in architecture and navigation.
Formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, and popularised by the scientist’s apple falling on head Eureka moment, this equation describes the relationship between force (F), mass (m), and acceleration (a). The first states that an object’s motion will not change unless acted upon by a force (Inertia). The second law states that the force exerted by an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration (Force). And the third is that when two moving objects they exert equal and opposite forces on each other (Action and Reaction).
Erwin Schrödinger’s Equation describes how the quantum state of a physical system evolves over time, incorporating the wave-particle duality of matter, which refers to the fact that matter at one moment acts like a wave and yet at another moment acts like matter. This equation has been popularised by the famously related Schrödinger’s Cat thought experiment which was designed to simplify quantum mechanics and which is now referenced in many science fiction works.
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WAR IS PEACE.
FREEDOM IS SLAVERY.
IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH.
By the end of 1984, these three sentences will be hard to shake out of your head—along with a good handful of others as well. Orwell’s cautionary tale of a future where everything you do from your work, diet, your friendships, right down to your very thinking is as relevant today as it was terrifyingly controversial back when it was first published in 1948. Yes, 1948. Nearly 80 years ago, Orwell’s speculative tale was a bit of a premonition in some ways and is a must-read for those looking for a challenging and thought-provoking story. And for 80 years, it’s barely been out of print and has struck a chord with millions of readers over generations. There’s a reason why Orwell is up there as one of the greatest Science Fiction writers there’s ever been, and 1984 is a big part of that reason. 1984 was George Orwell’s chilling prophecy about the future. His dystopian vision of a government that will do anything to control the narrative is timelier than ever and told through the eyes of government employee Winston Smith.
In a Totalitarian future governed by ‘Big Brother’ and enforced by the ‘Thought Police’, this is a world where your friends, neighbours, spouses and even your children will turn you in should you do or say the wrong thing. It’s a world where history is changed over and over at a whim to suit the current needs of the government. A world where two plus two equals whatever those in charge want it to. Smith is a law-abiding and model citizen. He toes the Party line, rewriting history to satisfy the demands of the Ministry of Truth. But with each lie he writes, Winston grows to hate the Party that seeks power for its own sake and persecutes those who dare to commit ‘thoughtcrimes’. Nevertheless, as he starts to think for himself, Winston can’t escape the fact that Big Brother is always watching…
Akthough it consists of a very slight 107 pages, there is plenty packed in. Orwell doesn’t waste a single word in his dystopian vision of the future that makes big statements on censorship, control, free speech and the media—and how all of them can be used for nefarious means if unchecked and unchallenged. It’s not a simple read though. Classics tend to be full of exposition, with long winding paragraphs of description and explanation, and 1984 is no exception. There are also a lot of buzzwords to get your head around as well as heavily political and psychological themes. But should you persevere, this is a book that will leave a lasting impression.
If anything, the book leans toward being more of an essay at times than an actual story but it is by no means any less engaging because of this. The very detached and cold nature of its writing feels deliberate to the point of it being tense and uncomfortable. This is one of those titles that should always be taught in schools; there’s plenty to pick at and analyse and wonder about, which is what speculative Sci-Fi should always do.
1984 is a book not to be missed. Just don’t let Big Brother catch you reading it.
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To mark British Science Week, from the 8th to the 17th of March, let’s shine a light on some of the greatest contemporary British minds in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (or STEM, for short).
Sue Black is a Professor of Computer Science at Durham University. An outspoken and active social media campaigner, Sue led a campaign to save Bletchley Park and is one of the most influential women in tech. An advocate for equality, diversity, and inclusion, particularly for women in computing, she founded BSCWomen, an online network for women in tech, and #techmums, a social enterprise which empowers mothers and their families through technology. In the 2016 New Year Honours, Sue received an OBE for services to technology.
Timothy Berners-Lee is a computer scientist and software engineer who is most famous for inventing Hypertext Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, and the World Wide Web. He also created the first internet browser, the HTML language, and the URL system, and in 1991 was named one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century by Time Magazine. In 2004, Timothy was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, and he now works as Professor of Computer Science at the University of Oxford. He is also a professor emeritus at the renowned Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Often referred to as MIT).
Maggie Aderin-Pocock is a space scientist, educator, and communicator. Throughout her career, she has worked on some of the most prestigious projects at some of the UK’s top universities and is currently an honorary research associate within the Department of Physics and Astronomy at University College London and Chancellor at the University of Leicester. She is also a presenter of the TV show The Sky at Night and does much outreach work to engage young people in science. Her academic work now focuses on building instruments and equipment to aid the fight against climate change. Maggie received an MBE for services to science education in 2009 – an honour that was upgraded to OBE in this year’s New Year Honours.
Donald Palmer is an Associate Professor of Immunology at the Royal Veterinary College where his current research interests focus on the ageing of the immune system. After completing his PhD at King’s College London, he took post-doctoral fellowship positions at Cancer Research UK and Imperial College where he carried out research on lymphocyte development. Donald is also a co-founder of the Reach Society – an initiative to inspire, encourage and motivate young people, particularly young Black men and boys, to achieve their full potential.
Roma Agrawal is a structural engineer who is most known for her work on The Shard in London. Born in Mumbai, she completed her undergraduate degree in physics at the University of Oxford and gained an MSc in structural engineering from Imperial College London. She has gained several awards for her work, including the Institute of Structural Engineers’ Structural Engineer of the Year’ award in 2011 and, more recently, the Royal Academy of Engineering’s ‘Rooke Award for Public Promotion of Engineering’. She is an active public speaker and advocate for diversity and inclusion within STEM.
Saiful Islam is Professor of Materials Modelling at the University of Oxford. He gained a chemistry degree and PhD from University College London and his research interests focus on gaining a deeper understanding of the processes that exist within energy materials, particularly batteries. As well as numerous academic awards and honours, Saiful holds a Guinness World Record for the highest voltage lemon battery (usually a low powered, simple battery used for the purposes of education).
To learn about more successful British scientists, visit the Inspiring Scientists website.
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The literary and cinematic landscape is awash with dazzling examples of love triumphing over all – think Mr Darcy and Elizabeth Bennett’s thrilling union at the end of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. But among the ‘happily ever afters’, a subset of works challenges this traditional narrative arc, defying audience expectations. The following novels and films prove that just because romantic love doesn’t always win, it doesn’t mean they are any less powerful.
Gone Girl captivated millions of readers, flying off shelves when it was first published in 2012. The novel challenges the idea of a perfect marriage by unravelling the facade of domestic bliss through a gripping narrative of deception, manipulation, and hidden motives.
The focal characters, Nick and Amy, are both unreliable narrators. Amy’s use of dark humour to obscure her genuine intentions further misleads the reader. But beneath the humour and thrilling twists and turns is a fascinating exploration of a love gone awry and how two people can destroy each other through a toxic cycle of manipulation.
Sally Rooney’s Normal People offers a nuanced and touching portrayal of the tumultuous relationship between young adults, Marianne, and Connell, as they navigate love and intimacy. Their on-off relationship – or ‘situationship’, as it might now be called – explores the complexities of power dynamics, class, and emotional vulnerability.
The TV adaptation helped catapult Paul Mescal and Daisy Edgar-Jones to fame and was essential lockdown viewing for many of us, with a staggering 62.7 million of us tuning in.
Richard Yates’ 1961 novel is a haunting exploration of suburban disillusionment and the erosion of dreams. Set in 1950s America, Yates masterfully delves into the existential crisis of Frank and April Wheeler, a couple trapped in the suffocating conformity of suburban life.
Through vivid prose and intricate character studies, Yates exposes the dissonance between societal experiences and individual aspirations. The themes of identity, alienation, and the quest for authenticity offer a poignant commentary on the human condition. The 2008 film adaptation saw Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet reunite eleven years after they first played star-crossed lovers Jack and Rose in the James Cameron classic Titanic.
“Don’t you think it’s better to be extremely happy for a short while, even if you lose it, than to be just okay for your whole life?”
In The Time Traveler’s Wife, Audrey Niffenegger challenges conventional romantic ideals by exploring the complexities of love and loss through Henry and Clare’s unconventional relationship.
Their relationship in the novel is defined by Henry’s involuntary time-travelling, presenting challenges as Clare is forced to cope with his sporadic disappearances and reappearances across different timelines, testing their love’s endurance.
David Nicholls’ One Day traces the evolving relationship of friends, Dexter and Emma, over two decades. After meeting on the night of their graduation from the University of Edinburgh, they continue to reconnect on the same day each year: July 15, St Swithin’s Day.
Exploring the role of missed opportunities and second chances, the novel weaves together the themes of love, friendship, and the passage of time. For Emma and Dexter, the course of true love does not run smoothly. As they weave in and out of each other’s lives, Nicholls explores everything from addiction to grief and regret. In 2011, it was made into a major motion picture starring Jim Sturgess and Anne Hathaway. More recently, it’s been adapted into a smash-hit Netflix series, starring Ambika Mod (This is Going To Hurt) and Leo Woodall (White Lotus). The series is no less poignant than Nicholls’ timeless novel, resonating deeply with viewers through its bittersweet message.
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Every four years we have a Leap Year, which gifts us an extra day, the elusive February 29th, known as Leap Day – and the next is due in just a few days time. This anomaly in the calendar has inspired unique traditions and celebrations around the world.
In Ireland, Leap Day (known as Bachelor’s Day or Ladies’ Privilege Day) carries a tradition of empowering women to take charge of their romantic destinies. According to folklore, on February 29th, women have the right to propose to their partners (this may not mean quite so much now). This custom dates back to a 5th-century Irish nun, St. Brigid, who complained to St. Patrick about women having to wait too long for suitors to propose. St. Patrick then granted women the opportunity to propose every four years.
The self-proclaimed “Leap Year Capital of the World,” Anthony, Texas, hosts a festival to honour the Leap Day. The town embraces the uniqueness of this day and welcomes people born on February 29th (known as Leap Babies) from around the US and a few foreign countries too. The festival features parades, concerts, and a grand birthday celebration for Leap Babies of all ages. At last count, their leap year party club had over 400 members, allegedly.
In the Rhineland region of Germany, love-struck boys place a small birch tree adorned with ribbons, known as a Liebesmaie, on the doorstep of their crush on the eve of May Day, 30th April. In each leap year, girls can reciprocate this gesture. Additionally, on May Day itself, another unique tradition unfolds as only women partake in the maypole dance during these years, while in non-leap years, men also join in the festivities.
La Bougie du Sapeur is a French satirical newspaper that is only published on the 29th of February and has been honouring this Leap Day tradition for the last 43 years. It includes unusual articles, humorous anecdotes, fake advertisements, and absurd events and is meant to be an escape from daily life.
In conclusion, Leap Day, occurring every four years, sparks diverse traditions globally, from empowering marriage proposals to festive celebrations and generally embracing a lighter perspective on life.